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THE 



PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE, 



CONTAINING 



PRACTICAL RULES 



ACQUIRING A KNOWLEDGE 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

WITH REMARKS ON THE PRINCIPLES OP SYNTAX AND 
COMPOSITION. 



BY WILLIAM CRAMP, 

AUTHOR OF "JUNIUS DISCOVERED." &c. 



Though Grammar be usually amongst the first things taught, it is always one 
of the last understood."— Tooke. 




LONDON:: 
RELFE AND FLETCHER, 17, CORNHILL. 

1838. 




A< 



Ct 



t; 



LONDON : 

j. unwin, st. peter's alley, 

CORNHILL. 



PREFACE. 



Knowledge is the birthright of man; but the means 
and opportunities of acquiring it are available only to a 
very limited extent by the subordinate classes of society. 
These privations might be lamented, if the happiness of 
those who toil depended on a participation of that mental 
and refined pleasure which scientific pursuits afford. The 
lowly, however, are often bappy in their ignorance, 
because, in their rude and uncultivated state, their desires 
are circumscribed, and they feel less acutely the miseries 
of want and dependence. But there are many whose 
avocations are less constant and less laborious — many who 
have raised themselves by industry to comparative ease 
and affluence, and on the correctness of whose opinions 
the stability and good order of civilized society chiefly 
depend. These have sufficient leisure to cultivate their 
minds ; and it is a duty they owe to themselves— to their 
dependents — and to their country — to claim their right to 
a share of that stock of knowledge which the industry of 
past ages has accumulated for the common benefit of 
posterity. ^ 

But there is a preliminary and indispensable acquire- 
ment to be secured, before the treasures of science and 
learning can be opened to their view. Written Lan- 
guage must be understood; and it is not only necessary 
to become acquainted with those mute signs by which 

a2 



IV PREFACE. 

thought is arrested in its fleeting progress, but every 
reader should also obtain a competent knowledge of the 
fundamental principles which regulate and determine the 
propriety of artificial language. 

Hence Grammar is a subject of more importance than 
most persons are willing to admit; and though it has not 
the attractions which many other studies possess, still it 
would perhaps be difficult to name a science more extensive 
in its application, or more generally useful in directing the 
conduct of the understanding. Even those who appear 
to pay least attention to the arbitrary rules by which lan- 
guage is often controlled, are nevertheless compelled to 
observe the fundamental laws of speech; and though they 
may affect to despise a knowledge of the use of words, 
they too often betray their solicitude for grammatical 
accuracy j by their hesitation and confusion — for they feel, 
though they do not perhaps know, that Speech is the 
Index of the Mind. 

It concerns every one, therefore, who is called upon to 
judge and act for himself, to possess the means by which 
alleged improprieties of diction may be corrected. This 
art grammarians profess to teach ; but do the works of 
those writers always afford the means by which the learner 
may be enabled to decide for himself, on subjects which, 
perhaps, no individual has a right to determine for another? 
In answering this important question, we shall, hereafter, 
have occasion to claim the indulgence of the candid 
reader. 

The primary object of this treatise on language is to 
render the principles of grammar easy, and the rules of 
syntax practically useful, to those who have in early life 
neglected the theory of speech. There are many, we feel 
convinced, who would willingly devote some portion of 
their leisure to the study of grammar, if the knowledge to 
be derived from works on that subject proved commen- 
surate with the attention the science necessrilya demands; 



PREFACE. V 

but there are few grown persons who will not rather 
depend on their own judgment, than voluntarily submit to 
learn the lessons of grammarians. 

To blend the philosophy of language with the best 
instructions of the best teachers is perhaps the surest 
means of attracting the attention of the self-educated 
reader. Such students do not wish to be taught, they 
desire only to be informed; and it may be presumed that 
one who has experienced similar difficulties knows better 
the kind of information they require than more learned 
writers on the subject. Whether we have supplied such 
information must be left to the decision of that class of 
our readers. 

The liberty we have taken with the writings of the 
learned, will probably subject us to still severer criticism; 
but we ask no favour for the errors we have committed. 
The works of writers on language are the fittest for the 
selection of grammatical inaccuracies, for grammarians at 
least ought to attend to the rules they inculcate. It was 
not, however, from any invidious motive, but from a 
principle of justice, that we in general gave their blunders 
the preference to those of less reputable writers. 

But there is one class of readers whose disapprobation 
we may expect, and whose commendation would be no 
proof of the practical utility of this volume. — We mean 
those persons who learn the principles of a science, as 
many learn the words of an Italian song, merely that they 
may be able to repeat a given number of sounds, without 
caring to understand the meaning of the writer. Such 
readers are impatient to became learned at an easy rate, 
and esteem that instruction the best which is soonest com- 
mitted to memory. They are unwilling to bestow the 
thought and attention which an abstruse subject demands, 
and without which scientific practical knowledge can never 
be acquired. It matters not, therefore, what system of 
grammar such persons adopt; for as they are too indolent 



VI PREFACE. 

or too incapable, to think for themselves, they must after 
all be contented to imitate the phraseology of others. 

But if the hitherto superficial reasoner should be inclined 
to apply himself seriously to the study of this indispensable 
science, he may still ask, "Must we be constantly thinking 
of our grammar whenever we speak or write?" It may be 
answered, certainly not. This mistaken notion has 
perhaps made more bad speakers and bad writers than a 
total want of a knowledge of grammar. The subject, and 
what he intends to say concerning it, ought solely to occupy 
the attention of the speaker or writer during the time he 
is employed in forming his sentences. Those who write 
best are probably those who think least about the choice 
of words or the structure of sentences while they are com- 
posing. The mind will in general suggest the preferable 
words and phrases; and the writer, having previously 
acquired a competent knowledge of the principles of 
language, will be prevented from committing gross impro- 
prieties. The practice of grammar is chiefly useful in 
enabling any one to ^correct errors that have been com- 
mitted in speaking or in writing. Those, therefore, who 
understand the theory of language, have acquired the 
means of applying the rules by which grammatical accuracy 
is regulated. But it is not essential that those rules 
should be "learnt by heart;" the anomalies only require to 
be committed to memory. 

In the arrangement of the Etymological Chapters of 
this volume, the syntax and construction of each part of 
speech have been connected with the etymology of the 
word. Whatever was considered useful to the uninformed 
student, has also been included ; and an illustration or two 
containing words classed under each particular part of 
speech have been added, in order that those who wish to 
acquire the science may have the means at hand of ascer- 
taining the progress they make in the knowledge of words. 
These lessons (if they must be so called,) are progressive, 



PREFACE. Vll 

and may be repeated as the learner proceeds with the 
subsequent chapters. The selections are such as will not, 
it is hoped, displease even our better informed readers. 

As regards the philosophy of this volume, we cannot 
reasonably expect a uniformly favourable opinion. Some 
may think that the remarks contain too much of the theory 
of language, and that the author has too often indulged in 
controversial disquisitions; but before his readers form 
their decided opinion upon these points, they are requested 
to examine whether the philosophy of the language has not 
been made subservient to the practical utility of the rules 
of grammar, and whether the controverted questions do 
not merit the calm consideration of all who desire to be 
informed on this subject. 

It would have been easy for the writer to have given a 
greater appearance of originality to this treatise, by 
adopting as his own the valuable extracts which he has 
selected from the works of his predecessors, but he feels 
well assured that such remarks will have more weight in 
their original language. Whenever it has been possible 
to trace the author, the benefit of his assistance has been 
acknowledged. This could not be always attended to in 
selecting the rules of syntax. These have long been con- 
sidered the property of every writer on language, therefore 
whenever they have been clearly expressed, they have 
frequently been taken verbatim from grammarians. 

As the principal design of this work is to instruct the 
English scholar, it would justly be considered inconsistent 
to refer for proofs and examples to the learned languages, 
or to aim at a display of deep research. That the latter 
might have been accomplished by one with very little pre- 
tensions to learning our classical readers will admit, for 
the author has found some difficulty in avoiding any 
appearance of this parade of learning. His constant en- 
deavour has been to simplify and render intelligible an 
abstruse science, and if possible to shew that a knowledge 



Vlll PREFACE. 

of English Grammar is not necessarily dependent on a 
previous knowledge of the structure or the grammar of 
any other language. 

We here feel it necessary to offer some excuse to our 
scientific readers for controverting opinions that have been 
universally received, and that are by grammarians con- 
sidered indisputably established. 

It is the general opinion that " the province of the 
grammarian is not to dictate what usages ought to be, but 
simply to discover what they are." 

This apology for not investigating the propriety of estab- 
lished usages may serve the compiler of Greek and Latin 
grammars. The dead languages must be learned with all 
their imperfections, since the anomalies are now a legitimate 
portion of those languages. But the circumstances are 
very different with a living language like our own — a 
language that has been progressively improving since its 
infancy, in spite of the restrictions of the learned. Here 
the grammarian has a higher duty to perform. He is 
regarded as the arbiter of taste in deciding doubtful and 
discordant idioms — as the dictator of propriety, and as 
the promulgator of the established laws of language. It 
is true he cannot enforce obedience, but it is his duty to 
resist useless innovations; and such resistance, seconded 
by sound argument and philosophical research, will seldom 
fail to overcome the prejudice of custom, and, though slow 
in its operation, must ultimately prevail. 

The rules of grammar owe their origin to written 
language. It was not till mankind began to use signs for 
sounds that the necessity of a strict conformity between 
the signs and the ideas intended to be expressed by them 
became obvious. In oral language the tone or the gesture 
of the speaker often supplied the deficiences and inac- 
curacies of speech, but in written discourse it became 
essential to attend to the grammatical structure of sen- 
tences. Hence originated among our first writers the 



PREFACE. IX 

office of the critic and grammarian. Those idioms which 
from their purity and general use were best understood 
were taken as a standard of propriety, and considered as 
forming a legitimate portion of the national dialect, in 
contradistinction to the anomalies of the ignorant, and the 
dialects of the remote and less cultivated provinces, and 
thus the language of the learned at first superseded that of 
the uneducated and vulgar. The established phraseology 
of our best writers, therefore, must ever be regarded with 
respect, even by those who may be disposed to question 
their unlimited authority, for it cannot be denied that our 
authors are the guardians of our language, and are 
amenable to ordinary criticism only when by their example 
they give currency and permanent existence to gram- 
matical improprieties. The anomalies of speech may be 
tolerated, but they cannot be, or at least they ought not to 
be, recommended; for when the union of right and wrong 
is attempted every effort to explain the consistency of the 
contradiction adds only to the difficulty of comprehending 
the commentator. 

The elements of artificial speech are arbitrary, and so 
are the forms or idioms of a language. Every one is at 
liberty to use what particular signs he may think proper in 
recording his own thoughts, and to accept or reject any 
form of words which may be suggested by another. Even 
the Roman tyrant admitted his inability to force a new 
word upon the people, though in other respects he was 
master of their wills, and their lives and liberties were at 
his disposal. But there is a more powerful inducement 
than the mandate of a sovereign, which will always ensure 
a cheerful submission to improvements in speech, and 
which among the rudest people at first gave currency to 
the elements of their language — it is the common 
interest of those who have occasion constantly to com- 
municate their wants and their opinions, to establish by 
tacit consent a uniform manner of expression, and to 



X PREFACE. 

avoid as far as possible the use of ambiguous words or 
phrases. 

Custom or use is said to give law to language, and 
has long been considered by the learned as the only stand- 
ard of propriety. He, therefore, who opposes the errors 
of popular usage, or questions the correctness of 
fashionable phraseology, will perhaps be treated 
little better than as an outlaw in the republic of letters — 
still as a disinterested inquirer, having no theory of his 
own to establish, and willing to admit the theories of others 
as far as they are comprehensible, the author may claim 
indulgence if he question the wisdom and justness of a 
decree which the law-makers themselves do not seem to 
understand. 

What (we have often asked) is " Reputable Usage?" 
Not, says an eminent critic, the usage of the multitude, 
nor the usage of the learned, much less the usage of the 
court, but a sort of compound ratio of all three. And this 
" compound ratio" as yet undefined, is nevertheless to be 
taken as the standard of propriety. Another writer 
declares that " Language is a species of fashion, and that 
every anomaly stands upon the same basis — custom having 
prescribed for it a particular rule." In addition to these 
authorities we are compelled to admit that writers on 
language invariably coincide in their opinions on this point; 
and grammarians, in particular, strongly inculcate implicit 
obedience to usage, unless in cases which custom has left 
dubious. 

It is not the desire to be thought capable of contro- 
verting the opinions of great men, deservedly esteemed for 
their talents and learning, nor any vainer motive, which 
induces the writer of this volume to oppose the universal 
assent of grammarians to a long established maxim. It is 
the firm conviction that the dictum is unphilosophical and 
dangerous — that it is the chief cause of the many difficulties 
which the study of language presents, and affords an un- 



PREFACE. XI 

answerable excuse for the little attention that is often paid 
to the more valuable instructions of grammarians. For 
who will spend much time in acquiring the rudiments of a 
science, the principles and rules of which are ever varying, 
since the knowledge of what is right must depend upon 
the capricious decisions of those who pretend to under- 
stand the precise limits of " Reputable Usage.'' 

But it may be asked, what then is the legitimate standard 
of propriety in language? Or rather, what is grammar? 
We shall answer without hesitation, because we can appeal 
to the experience of every intelligent writer, and to the 
practice of every grammarian, whenever he has been able 
to see clearly, and to correct with certainty, any impro- 
priety of long established usage. 

Grammar is the strict agreement between 
the signs and the ideas which such signs are 
intended to express. It was this concordance that 
first gave law to language, and currency to original forms 
of speech ; and it is to maintain this conformity between 
words and ideas that the rules of grammar are so useful. 
It is to the mind, and not to the vox populi, which the 
grammarian appeals when he is able to prove any gram- 
matical inaccuracy; it is only when a difficulty occurs, that 
custom is allowed to have the supremacy. 

The authority of reputable usage is perhaps less re- 
stricted in determining the propriety of single terms, than 
it is in regulating the laws of construction. An increase 
of knowledge necessarily demands an increase of means 
for the communication of that knowledge. In the progress 
of civilization new words are constantly required to 
express new ideas; and when ingenuity fails to invent 
suitable expressions a modification of some established 
term frequently supplies the deficiency; but even in 
establishing the arbitrary elements of language, the funda- 
mental principle of grammar is attended to by the learned, 
the fitness of the new term is ascertained by referring to 



Xll PREFACE. 

its etymon or derivation, and its propriety is estimated by 
the conformity which exists, or is supposed to exist, 
between the sign and the object it is intended to represent. 
If there be no real nor any imaginary resemblance dis- 
cernable, nor any circumstance to fix the meaning of the 
expression, it is generally left to the use of those who are 
contented to adopt the vague phraseology of the illiterate. 

Sometimes, however, from frequent application and 
general use, an indefinite word acquires at length a precise 
signification, and, when sanctioned by authority, is, after a 
time, incorporated in the language. So far does reputable 
usage ennoble that which was at one time justly condemned 
as belonging to the jargon of the vulgar. 

The authority which gives currency to single terms is 
also sufficient to sanction any improvement in the idioms 
of a language, but the laws of construction must ever be 
subservient to the principles of Universal Grammar. 
Nothing therefore, in our humble opinion, can justify an 
illogical departure from established grammatical usage. 
Why grammarians should wish to substitute custom for the 
unerring laws of the human mind, in determining the pro- 
priety of contradictory idioms, will perhaps be sufficiently 
shown in the subsequent pages of this work. 

It would not become the author to speak in extenuation 
of the defects of this volume, yet it will be readily admitted, 
by those best acquainted with works of this kind, that 
considerable difficulty must be experienced by him who 
endeavours to condense into one volume the Theory and 
Practice of an art so extensive in its details as that of 
Grammar. This difficulty suggested the plan of combining 
a technical Dictionary with the Index ; and it is hoped 
that the form in which the notes are there given will be 
more acceptable to the reader than that usually adopted. 

Among those who have assisted to render this volume 
deserving the notice of the public, the author may be 
allowed to distinguish James Henry Hurdis, Esq., 



PREFACE. Xll 

of Newtek , a gentleman ever willing to devote his highly 
cultivated talents, either to the service of the public, or 
to promote the welfare of a private individual. The 
engravings are intended to illustrate parts of the sub- 
ject that appeared to require attraction, but if they fail 
to instruct, they cannot fail (as specimens of art,) to be 
admired, and will give a value to this volume which its 
intrinsic merit may not perhaps entitle it to receive. 



SUBSCRIBERS. 



Abergavenny, the Earl of, Eridge 

Castle 
Amherst, Lord, Montreal 
Austin, Rev. J., Che vening Rectory 
Austin, Thomas, Esq., Reppington 
Austin, Mrs. H., Bellevue 

Auber, Rev, , Sevenoaks 

Anquetil, Mr., Sevenoaks 
Abbott, Mr., Lewes 
Adams, R. E. Esq., Sevenoaks 
Ashton, Mr. John, Sevenoaks 
Attree, Mr. John, Ringmer 

Burlington, the Earl of, Belgrave-sq« 
Buckley, Henry, Esq., Riverhill 
Botting, Mr. W., Blackbrook 
Botting, Mr. W., Westmeston-place 
Blaauw, W. H. Esq., Beechlands, 

Newick 
Blencowe, R. W. Esq., Chailey 
Bingham, Rev. R., Prebendary of 

Chichester. 
Bingham, Rev. Richard, Church 

House, Gosport 
Baker, Mr. H., Newick 
Bannister, Mrs., Fletching 
Baxter, Mr. John, Lewes 
Baxter, Mr. W. E., Lewes 
Beard, Mr. William, Chailey 
Berry, Mr. R., Ringmer 
Billingshurst, Mr. E., Brighton 
Bingham, Mr. C. E., London 
Bingham, Mr. S. L., Durham-upon- 

Trent 



Bingham, Mr. R. Rampton 
Blackiston, Mr. J. C. F., Fletching 
Brown, Mr. H., Lewes 
Button, Mr. W., Lewes 

Chichester, the Earl of, Stanmer 
Chatterton, Sir W., Bart., Newick 
Conroy, Sir John, Bart., Kensington 

Palace 
Crichton, Sir A., Seal Grove 
Crofts, Rev. P. G., Mailing 
Curties, Rev. T. S., Sevenoaks 
Ciciloni, F. Esq., London 
Cole, C. G. Esq., Sevenoaks 
Carnell, Thomas, Esq., Sevenoaks 
Cramp, Mrs., Sevenoaks 
Constable, Rev. John, Ringmer 
Cripps, J. M. Esq., Novington 
Clarke, R. Esq., Chailey 
Covey, W. Esq., Uckfield 
Carvell, J. "W. Esq., Pratts Bottom 
Carter, Mr. F., New-st. Vincent-sq. 
Chadwick, Mr., 38, Holywell Street 
Cowper, Mr., Lewes 
Cramp, Mr. R., George Street, 

Portman Square 
Cruso, Mr. Edmund, Newick 

Davies, Warburton, Esq., Woodgate 
Dundas, Major, Brighton 
Dundas, Miss, Brighton 
Dundas, L. Esq., Newick 
Davey, Mr. Joseph, Lewes 
Davey, Mr. W., Lewes 



SUBSCRIBERS. 



XV 



Deudney, Mr. John, Lewes 

Egremont, the Earl of, Petworth 
Epps, John, M.D., London 
Elwood, Lt.-Col., Clayton Priory 

Fitzroy, Hon. H., Chapel-street 
Fitzhugh, Rev. W. A., Streat 
Freeman, Mrs., Dorset Gardens, 

Brighton 
Figg, W. Esq., Lewes 
Fuller, Mr. W., 60, Jermyn- street 
Fuller, Mr. Joseph, Ringmer 
Fuller, Mr. Thomas, Newick 

Gage, Viscount, Firle 
Gambier, C. Esq., 9, Harley-street 
Giraud, R. H. Esq., Furnival's Inn 
Giraud, Mr. C. E., Sevenoaks 
Gourd, Mr. T., Horsted Keynes 
Graveley, Mr. T., Cowfold 
Guy, Mr. H., Hamsey 
Gear, Robert, Esq., Lewes 
Gell, F. H. Esq., Lewes 
Glendinning, A. Esq., Ash Grove 

Homesdale, Viscount, Montreal 
Hepburn, Mrs. General, the Hook, 
Chailey 

Hallam, ■ , Esq., Wimpole-street 

Harley, , Esq., London 

Harris, J. Esq., Sevenoaks 
Heritage, Captain, R.N., Cranbrook 
Hurdis, Captain, R.N., Uckfield 
Hurdis, J. H., Esq., Newick 
Haire, Thomas, M.D., Lewes 
Hutton, Mrs., Southover 
Hoper, George, Esq., Lewes 
Haldane, Mr. J., 18, Old Burling- 
ton-street 
Hall, Mr. John, Newick 
Hamshar, Mr. E., Newick 
Harmer, Mr. John, Newick 
Heyward, Mr., Cheapside 
Hodd, Mr. John, London 



Hodd, Mr. S. T., Brighton 
Harris, Mr. H., 21, Great Alie-st. 
Hethei'ington, Mr., London 
Hills, Mr., Ringmer 
Huson, Mr., Lewes 
Hutton, Mr. J., London 

Ingram, James, Esq., Rottingdean 

Isard, Mr. W., Newick 

Ince, John, Esq., 3, Lower Grosve- 

nor-place 
Ivory, J. W. Esq., Ringmer 

Johnson, John, Esq., Millbank-row, 

Westminster 
Johnson, Mrs., Millbank-row 
Johnson, W. Esq., Eaton-place 
Jones, John, Esq., Fletching 
Jones, Miss, Ringmer 
Jones, Mr. H., Lewes 
Jenner, Mr. R., Trimmons 

Knowles, J. S. Esq., 20, Alfred-place 
Kell, W. P. Esq., Lewes 
Knight, Mr. Richard, Barcombe 
Kitchener, Mr., Lewes 
Knowles, Mr., Sevenoaks 
Kelson, George, Esq., Sevenoaks 

Lupton, Mr. W., Chailey 
Landzella, Mr. W., 22, Grosvenor-st. 
Lemm, Mr., Park-street 
Leckenby, Mr., Cottam,Lincolnshire 
Lower, Mr. R., Chiddingly 
Lambard, W. Esq., Sevenoaks 
Lightfoot, Thomas, Esq., Sevenoaks 

Mantell, G., F.R.S., &c, Brighton 
Mantell, J., F.L.S., Lewes 
Michaux, Mrs., Brighton 
Morris, Mr. D., Lewes 
Martin, Mr. D., Ringmer 
Mitchell, Mr. J., Maresfield 

Nevill, Viscount, Eridge 



XVI 



SUBSCRIBERS, 



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Napean,Capt. E. Bradbourne-cottage 
Norwood, Mr. T., Cambridge 
Nicol, Mr. W., Forest-row 

Palmerston, Viscount, Broadlands 
Powell, Rev. T. B., Newick 
Partington, Thomas, Esq., OfFham 
Parry, T. Esq., Trin. Coll., Camb. 
Palmer, Mr. C., London 
Parker, Mr. G., London 
Parker, Mr., Lindfield 
Parsons, Mr. I. L., Lewes 
Pegler, Mr. I., Manglesbury, Glos. 
Peake, R. B. Esq., London 
Perkins, F. Esq., Chepsted-place 
Phillips, Mr. W., Luton 
Polhill, George, Esq., Sundridge 
Puttock, Mr. W., Brighton 
Palmer, Mr. W., London 

Read, Mr. T., Tunbridge Wells 
Richardson, Capt., Lewes 
Robinson, Mrs., Gosport 
Ready, Charles, Esq., Lewes 
Roberts, Mr., Danehill 
Ripley, Mr. W. F., Uckfield 
Rogers, Mr. W. H., Chailey 
Rider, Mr. E., Digbeth 
Riche, Mr., London 

Sheffield, Earl of, Sheffield Park 
St. John, The Hon. Gen., Chailey 
Slater, J. H. Esq., Newick Park 
Shirley, H. Esq., Pippingford 
Stamer, Rev. W., Seale 
Shiffner, Capt. R.N., Newick Lodge 



Sober, Mrs., Brighton 
Scrase, Mr. John, Ditchling 
Smith, William, Esq., Hall-place 
Smith, Mrs., Hall-place 
Streathfield, Capt. R., Hever 
Summerfield, Miss, Sevenoaks 
Smith, Edmund, Esq., London 
Smith, N. C, London 
Smith, Mrs., Southampton-row 
Smith, Mr. I., Newick 

Tomlinson, Admiral, Middleton 
Trebeck, The Rev. Thos., Chailey 
Tilbury, G. E., Esq. 
Tanner, R. Esq., Moore House 
Tuppen, R. S. Esq. , Lindfield 
Trotter, R. Esq., Cuckfield 

Valentine, Rev. C. P., Chailey 
Vinall, Rev. E., Tonbridge 
Verral, Mr. B., Newick 
Verral, Mr. I., Lewes 

Wilson, Sir T. M., Bart., Searles 
Willoughby, Capt. Sir N., Chapel-st. 
Wilmott, E. Esq., Southover 
Whiteman, R. H. Esq., Ditchling 
Wilds, H. Esq., Brighton 
Whiteman, Mr. R., Lewes 
Walls, Mr. J., Brighton 
Weston, Mrs., Chailey 
Wood, Mr. C, Woodlands 
Wing, Mr. E., Chailey 
Weston, Mr. I., Newick 
Wilgroes, Rev. I. T., Riverhead 
Wagg, Mr. W., Chailey 
Willard, C. Esq., Sevenoaks 



THE 



PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 



INTRODUCTION. 

" Language is an art, whose influence extends over all the others, and in 
which, finally, all science whatever must centre." — Horne Tooke. 

When we consider how inseparably Language is con- 
nected with man's happiness, and how much the successful 
development and improvement of his intellectual faculties 
depend on its resources, we may, without impropriety, 
inquire why the study of so important a science as grammar 
should be so generally neglected. Few acquire a competent 
knowledge of its rules, — a slight acquaintance being all that 
is usually considered essential by those who wish to speak 
correctly, and when this object has been attained, the study 
of language is too often abandoned in disgust. 

What, then, is the nature of this science, so repulsive to 
many, so imperfectly understood even by its professors? 
What are the advantages any one may expect to derive from 
the study of grammar? — and can the subject be rendered 
agreeable to the student by more efficient means than those 
hitherto adopted? These are questions to which we shall 
direct our attention; and should we fail in our purpose to 
render the subject more intelligible, our efforts may still be 
attended with advantage, for the hints of the unlearned some- 
times supply materials for the learned to work upon. 



Z PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 

A modern writer asserts, "The success with which the 
principles of any art or science are investigated, is generally 
proportioned to the number of those whose labours are 
directed to its cultivation and improvement." This obser- 
vation may be very true, if it be limited to those who really 
investigate the principles of a science ; but if we include all 
who write upon any particular subject, the proportion of 
success may indeed be questioned. Grammar is one proof 
of the inverse proportion of labour to the success of its 
application. The writers on language are many; their dis- 
coveries few. The subject has been often handled, but 
seldom investigated, unless the repetition of rules, enforced 
by new authorities, can be called investigation. But what 
has authority to do with the rules of grammar? Usage may 
sanction inaccurate language, but the most reputable usage 
cannot alter the nature of the science. Its fundamental 
principles are unchangeable. Grammar should teach the 
correct use of words. Its rules should not be annulled by 
exceptions, nor should errors be palliated by quoting prece- 
dents from classical writers. This servile compliance with 
usage is the cause of the many difficulties which occur in 
acquiring a knowledge of grammar. Its principles are ren- 
dered obscure and uncertain, when the grammarian, instead 
of exposing erroneous phraseology, employs his pen in its 
defence; and until this method of treating the subject be 
exploded, there can be little hope of much permanent im- 
provement in our language. For when authority is per- 
mitted to supersede the principles of science, the most 
effectual barrier is fixed against the progress of improvement. 
Authority in language ought to extend no further than to 
the choice of words and phrases, in reference to their just 
application; and when this point has been established, the 
construction and modification of terms should conform to 
the principles of grammar. 

It is, however, confessed, that the structure of language, 



PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. o 

ike the materials of which it is composed, is, in a great 
degree, arbitrary, and depends upon the order in which 
different nations are accustomed to think; as long, therefore, 
as the peculiar idioms and established phraseology of a par- 
ticular people are perspicuous, they cannot be deviated from 
with propriety. But the decisions of grammarians, deter- 
mined by the dictation of usage, should not be like the laws 
of the Medes and Persians, which altered not. The rules of 
grammar should be subject to revision, whenever they are 
found inconsistent with the principles of right thinking ; and 
the science should be made subservient to the mind, whence 
alone it takes its origin. 

A writer on grammar has, nevertheless, to contend against 
many difficulties. He is called upon to give proofs of his 
ability in the frequent exercise of the rules he inculcates. 
The prejudice of habit, the caprice of fashion, and the autho- 
rity of the best writers, conspire against his precepts. Axioms, 
founded on rational principles, are sometimes contemned, 
because they are not understood; while the idle and half- 
educated prefer imitation to originality, and adopt, without 
questioning, the errors of their instructors. 

"It is not," says Mr. Locke, "worth while to be con- 
cerned what he says or thinks, who says or thinks only as he 
is directed by another." Every attempt to exercise the 
judgment of such a learner is considered as a tax upon his 
exertion, and he resents the imposed condition as if it were 
an insult to his understanding. It is not for such that we 
have undertaken the task before us. Knowledge can never 
be acquired by rote ; — the reasoning faculties must be 
employed, if men desire to profit by and remember what they 
learn. 

The practice of grammarians has been to conceal those 
difficulties which they could not explain. They have dwelt, 
with tedious prolixity, upon the elementary principles of the 
science, while they have left the most useful branch of it 

b 2 



4 PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 

comparatively unexplored. They content themselves with 
repeating, that language is the medium by which the mind 
communicates its thoughts; they confine themselves to 
general definitions, but they are cautious how they descend 
to critical investigation. " Sensible and learned men," says 
Mr. Brenan," conceal the truth, through a fear that too 
much knowledge may divert the pupil from a proper steadi- 
ness to the observance of rules." What is this but a tacit 
acknowledgment that the rules are founded in error, and will 
not bear the investigation which science, properly so called, 
should at all times be ready to undergo? Will such an 
apology satisfy the reader? Let him mark the consequences 
of this injudicious forbearance: "These scrupulous teachers," 
says the same spirited writer, "give directions that positively 
mislead, fill the mind with wrong notions, and throw a most 
prejudicial taint of doubt and error upon the future reason- 
ings of the learner." 

The science of grammar must be learned by studying lan- 
guage, in connection with the operations of the mind, for 
therein only are its principles to be found. Whatever know- 
ledge men acquire of the nature and use of words has been 
deduced from this source. It is well known that a good 
memory, and frequent opportunities of mixing in the best 
society, will teach any one to speak grammatically. It will 
do more. It will make some appear to reason correctly, 
who have no other pretensions to abilities than an aptitude 
to remember the sayings of others. They have perhaps 
heard or read certain phrases and arguments, and they adopt 
them, without observing their propriety, or examining their 
correctness. But when such persons are called upon to 
express their own thoughts, they feel the want of a know- 
ledge of the rules and principles of grammar. 

The facility with which men are able to receive and impart 
knowledge depends greatly upon the clear conceptions they 
have of the signs used for this purpose. The precise mean- 



PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 5 

ing of words, and their proper order and distribution in a 
sentence, should be carefully attended to by the young 
student. The importance of these fundamental principles 
may be inferred from the remarks of an elegant writer on 
composition: — 

" All that regards the study of eloquence and composition 
merits the higher attention, upon this account, — that it is 
intimately connected with the improvement of our intel- 
lectual powers. For when we are employed, after a proper 
manner, in the study of composition, we are cultivating 
reason itself. True rhetoric and sound logic are very nearly 
allied. The study of arranging and expressing our thoughts 
with propriety, teaches to think as well as to speak accurately. 
By putting our sentiments into words we always conceive 
them more distinctly. Every one who has the slightest 
acquaintance with composition knows that when he ex- 
presses himself ill on any subject, when his arrangement is 
loose, and his sentences become feeble, the defects of his 
style can, almost on every occasion, be traced back to his 
indistinct conception of the subject ; so close is the connec- 
tion between thoughts and the words in which they are 
clothed." 

We shall conclude these preliminary remarks with a quo- 
tation from Mr. Murray, on the utility and importance of 
the study of grammar : — 

" As words are the signs of our ideas, and the medium by 
which we perceive the sentiments of others, and communi- 
cate our own, and as signs exhibit things which they are 
intended to represent, more or less accurately, according as 
their real or established conformity to those things is more 
or less exact, it is evident that in proportion to our know- 
ledge of the nature and properties of words, of their relation 
to each other, and their established connection with the ideas 
to which they are applied, will be the certainty and ease with 
which we transfuse our sentiments into the minds of one 



6 PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 

another; and that without a competent knowledge of this 
kind, we shall frequently be in hazard of misunderstanding 
others, and of being misunderstood ourselves. It may, 
indeed, be justly asserted, that many of the differences in 
opinion among men, with the disputes, contentions, and 
alienations of heart, which have too often proceeded from 
such differences, have been occasioned by a want of proper 
skill in the connection and meaning of words, and by a 
tenacious misapplication of language/' 



CHAPTER I. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 

" The conversation of men of rank and eminence regulates pronunciation : 
authors of reputation are our standard for all that concerns the con- 
struction and application of words." — Campbell. 

Grammar is usually divided into four parts — Ortho- 
graphy, Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody. 

Orthography and prosody treat of the nature and 
power of elementary sounds, and comprise rules for spelling 
and pronunciation. As these parts of grammar have been 
minutely investigated by others, and as every thing really 
useful in them may be soon learned, and easily understood, 
we shall confine ourselves to a few observations on modern 
refinement and improvement in orthography and pronun- 
ciation. 

Writers on language repeatedly complain that the cha- 
racters of the alphabet are both redundant and defective, yet 
they do not attempt to lay aside the redundant letters, nor 
supply a suitable number of characters for the elementary 
sounds. They acknowledge that the art of pronunciation 
might by these means be greatly facilitated and improved; 
but they have no authority to justify a deviation from long 
established usage. They are perhaps alarmed at the tem- 
porary inconvenience such changes might produce. The 
experiment is, notwithstanding, well worth the trial; and 
the man who, by his popularity and talent, could add a few 
new letters to the alphabet, would render an essential and 
lasting benefit to posterity. Precedents for such improve- 
ment might be quoted from the Greek and other languages. 

Volumes have, from time to time, been published respect- 



O PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 

ing the precise powers of the elementary sounds. One 
specimen will perhaps content the reader: — 

Consonants. — "Here, then, are three things to be dis- 
tinguished. — 1st. The perfect mute, having no sound of any 
kind. 2ndly. The perfect consonant, having not only a pro- 
per but continued sound. And 3rdly. Between these 
extremes we find the letter b having a proper sound, but so 
limited, that in respect to the perfect consonant it may be 
termed a mute, and in relation to the perfect mute may 
properly be termed imperfect." 

Can we feel surprised that many should experience a dis- 
gust for grammar, when such are its introductory lessons? 

" It is the nature of a consonant to require the assistance 
of the organs of speech to give it utterance. 

" A vowel is a simple sound, formed by a continued 
effusion of the breath, and a certain conformation of the 
mouth, without any alteration of the position or any motion 
of the organs of speech, from the moment the vocal sound 
commences till it ends. 

" A consonant may be defined to be an interruption of 
the effusion of vocal sound, arising from the application of 
of the organs of speech to each other." 

Orthography, as the term implies, includes rules for 
spelling, though this part of grammar is chiefly occupied in 
nice distinctions between the nature and powers of letters. 

Spelling is the art of expressing words by their proper 
letters, and the best and only sure rule for dividing the 
syllables in spelling is to divide them as they are naturally 
divided, in a right pronunciation, without regard to the 
derivation of words, or the possible combination of conso- 
nants at the beginning of syllables. 

Every attempt to improve the English language must be 
ineffectual, while reason and common sense stoop to the 
dictates of fashion and caprice. The orthography and pro- 
nunciation of to-day, though perfectly consistent with ana- 
logy, may be denounced as vulgar and inaccurate to-morrow, 
if a popular character chance to deviate from established 
usage. The servile multitude are too apt to imitate the 
senseless eccentricities of some idol, and to be proud of a 
resemblance that might justly expose them to ridicule and 



PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. \) 

contempt. " Words," says an eloquent writer, " most fre- 
quently in use are most liable to be contracted, and they 
contract more rapidly in the mouth of the illiterate vulgar, 
and mincing courtiers and insects of fashion, than in the 
mouth of the learned professional man, and in the middle 
class of the people. Extremes, it is often said, meet; and 
when my ears were lately saluted with such pronunciations 
as Lunnun for London; gemmen (or something more like it 
than gentleman,) from the mouth of a royal duke, I could 
not help reflecting how very nearly high life and low life — 
the court and Wapping, or Petticoat-lane — are related." 

It is a certain indication of a weak and frivolous mind to 
seek distinction by imitating, or by introducing novel terms 
or phrases, or by altering, unnecessarily, the established 
pronunciation of a language. Words are the means by \ 
which men's thoughts are interchanged, and, like other f 
means, their beauty and perfection consist in their simplicity, 
and uniform application. 

Mr. Walker, in his " Critical Pronouncing Dic- 
tionary," has endeavoured to expose this fashionable ab- 
surdity ; and it is much to be regretted that the excellent 
remarks, interspersed throughout that work, are not better 
known. We quote one example of the triumph of common 
sense, as recorded by that writer. 

Authority. This word is sometimes pronounced as if 
written autority. This affected pronunciation is traced to a 
gentleman who was one of the greatest ornaments of the law, 
as well as one of the politest scholars of the age, and whose 
authority has been sufficient to sway the bench and the bar, 
though author, authentic, theatre, theory, &c, and a thousand 
similar words, where the th is heard, are constantly staring 
them in the face. 

The public ear is not, however, so far vitiated as to ac- 
knowledge this innovation ; for though it may with security, 
and even approbation, be pronounced in Westminster Hall, 
it would not be quite so safe for an actor to adopt it on the 
stage. 

I know it will be said that autoritas is better Latin ; that 
the purer Latin never had the h ; and that our word, which 
is derived from it, ought on that account to omit it. But it 



10 PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 

may be observed that, according to the best Latin critics, the 
word ought to be written auctoritas, and that, according to 
this reasoning, we ought to write and pronounce auctority 
and auctor ; but this, I presume, is farther than these inno- 
vators would choose to go ; — the truth is, such singularities 
of pronunciation should be left to the lower class of critics, 
who, like coxcombs in dress, would be utterly unnoticed, if 
they were not distinguished by petty deviations from the rest 
of the world. 

We are persuaded that many of the existing improprieties 
of speech would be corrected if grammarians and writers on 
language did their duty by pointing out the inaccuracies, and 
were not quite so fond of quoting si volet usus.* May we 
not suspect they compromise their ignorance of the funda- 
mental principles of the science by granting a licence in 
favour of popular usage, and, more particularly, since they 
often acknowledge such usage to be at variance with perspi- 
cuity and correctness. What can we think of the propriety 
of a precept which forbids a man to do right as long as the 
majority of mankind persist in doing wrong ? yet this is the 
spirit in which most English grammars are compiled. 

The arbiters of polite pronunciation appear to delight in 
unmeaning deviations from correct and well established 
usage : those anomalies and defects which render the ac- 
quirement of the English language so difficult are held sacred, 
while the most unwarrantable violations in orthography and 
diction are tolerated because " fashion will have it so/' We 
are told that again and against should be pronounced agen 
and agenst ; haunt and taunt, hant and tant ; that docile 
should be pronounced dossel ; and many similar alterations 
are recommended in the works of modern orthoepists. It 
might be urged, in answer to these innovations, that the 
dipthongs ai and au are what grammarians call proper 



* Mr. Tooke is an exception : speaking of the author of this maxim, he 
remarks — " I do not think him of any authority whatever upon this occasion. 
He wrote divinely, and so Vestris danced ; but in this, our enquiry, we are 
not poets nor dancers, hut anatomists." 

" The polished attendants on a throne," says Mr. Walker, " are as apt to 
depart from simplicity in language as in dress and manners, and novelty, 
instead of custom, is too often the jus et norma loquendi of a court." 



PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 11 

dipthongs, in, which both the vowel sounds should be heard, 
as in pain, gain, main, laudable. Whatever exceptions may 
exist should therefore be accounted as so many defects in the 
language, the orthography being at variance with the pronun- 
ciation : these improprieties might be obviated, either by 
new modelling the words, or by restoring the original sound 
to the letters. But our modern critics pursue a very 
different course. They take for a guide what they are pleased 
to call " reputable usage ;" and though, in many instances, 
they confess its insufficiency and danger, yet they persist in 
recommending it ; hence the orthography and pronunciation 
of the English language is becoming daily more fluctuating, 
incongruous and defective. 

This puerile fondness for error is often apparent in the 
absurd precision which many writers observe when they 
quote from the works of our earlier authors : they seem to 
feel a pride in giving the passage verbatim, though the 
intention of referring to it was to serve some more useful 
purpose than merely to gratify a silly curiosity, or to show 
how strangely our ancestors spelled and wrote. It may be 
asked of those who defend this practice, whether there is any 
thing wonderful in the change which a few centuries have 
produced in a science so fluctuating as language, and more 
particularly as regards that part of the science which depends 
so much on whim and fashion ? Those critics who, with a 
secret complacency, contrast their improved compositions 
with the rude specimens of their forefathers, will probably" 
in their turns be ridiculed by succeeding generations. But 
if they would have their writings descend uncorrupted to 
posterity, let them endeavour to fix the elementary sounds 
to appropriate characters ; for this is the first step towards 
establishing a permanent language. 



CHAPTER II 



ETYMOLOGY. 

" The essential parts of speech are the same in all languages. There must 
always be some words which denote the names of objects, or which mark 
the subject of discourse ; others which denote the qualities of those 
objects, and express what we affirm concerning them ; and other words 
which point out their connections and relations." — Blair. 

Before any one can apply the rules of syntax, or correct 
errors in composition, it is indispensably necessary that he 
should acquire, as far as possible, a knowledge of those 
differences which have induced grammarians to class words 
under the several denominations called parts of speech. 

Etymology explains the nature of the different sorts of 
words, and treats of their modifications and derivations. 

The parts of speech are variously reckoned ; but the 
following is the usual distribution : — the article, the noun, 
the adjective, the pronoun, the verb, the adverb, the preposition, 
the conjunction, and the interjection. 

When mankind converse, their discourse is always con- 
cerning the existence of properties, actions, states, or relations 

Of NOUNS. 

The article limits, or points out the noun. The noun 
denotes the subject, or some object connected with the 
subject. The adjective expresses a quality belonging to a 
noun. The pronoun is used instead of a noun. The verb 
indicates the existence, or the action or state of a noun. The 
adverb either qualifies an adjective or another adverb, or it 
more correctly defines the action or state attributed to the 
noun. The preposition connects, and shows what relation one 
noun bears to another. The conjunction joins two or more 
words or sentences together which refer to the same noun, or 



PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 13 

it qualifies the clause or sentence which it connects. The > 
interjection is no part of artificial language, though it is often / 
used by poets and sentimentalists. 

The verb is usually denominated "the chief word" in a 
sentence ; but, as the noun denotes the subject of our 
thoughts, it may be considered of equal importance. The 
propriety of this remark will be more evident when we 
come to examine the nature of the verb, a part of speech 
which has hitherto been confounded with the predicate, and 
is seldom distinguished from it when they are united into 
one term. 

Before we enter upon the analysis of the several parts of 
speech, we shall hazard some general observations on the 
nature and properties of words, and, in doing this, it will 
be necessary to refer to a science which has hitherto been 
too little consulted by writers on grammar. 

The connection between ideas and the signs which repre- 
sent them is so inseparable, that the rudiments of Logic* 
appear essential in acquiring a correct knowledge of the 
nature and properties of words ; but while that science has 
been treated of by men of learning and abilities, the principles 
of language, and the rules of grammar, have too often been 

* We refer to those parts of logic which, treat of the connection between 
terms and ideas, and of the nature and formation of propositions, and not to 
the art of syllogizing ,- for we perfectly agree with Dr. Campbell, that " the 
rules are cumbersome to the memory, and unnecessary in practice. No one 
was ever made a reasoner who needed their aid. Ostentatious and artificial, 
they give that which is shallow the appearance of profundity." 

This writer has been considered singular in his opinion, but if we look into 
the writings of Mr. Locke, we shall find that he entertained nearly the same 
view of the subject. " Nobody is made any thing by hearing of rules, or 
laying them up in his memory ; practice must settle the habit of doing, 
without reflecting on the rule ; and you may as well hope to make a good 
painter or musician extempore, by a lecture and instruction in the arts of 
music and painting, as a coherent thinker or strict reasoner by a set of rules 
showing him wherein right reasoning consists." 

Nor does Dr. Watts, in his work on logic, appear to speak very highly of 
the advantages of those artificial means which teach men to reason by mode 
and figure. His testimony of the insufficiency of logic as an art may be con- 
sidered 'of more weight than any arguments which might be adduced in 
favour of Dr. Campbell's opinion. " The light of nature, a good judgment, 
and due consideration of things, tend more to true reasoning than all the 
trappings of moods and figures." — Watts' Logic, part iii., ch. 2, § 3. 



14 PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 

left to the decision of men of ordinary endowments and 
capacities. Should these studies ever become united, there 
may then be some chance that the principles of both will be 
acquired with pleasure, and their practical advantages some- 
what better understood. 

It is a favourite maxim with the higher class of writers on 
grammar, that the noun and verb are the only essential parts 
of speech ; but they do not demonstrate in what manner a 
communication of ideas could be effected by these means. 
They should give a specimen of intelligible composition, con- 
sisting entirely of nouns and verbs, and not have recourse to 
those words which they profess to consider as only convenient, 
but not indispensable. If the verb be simply a word which 
affirms, and not the attribute which is affirmed of the noun, 
we do not hesitate to pronounce such a theory impracticable. 
But while grammarians mistake the predicate for the verb, 
because affirmation is frequently conjoined with the attribute, 
they may indeed deceive themselves and others in the belief 
that language might consist only of nouns and verbs. Per- 
mitting, however, the indulgence of this misconception, let 
us inquire in what manner they prove the subordinate utility 
of the other parts of speech. 

"The pronoun" says Dr. Crombie, "is clearly a substi- 
tute for the noun ; it cannot, therefore, be deemed essential. 
The adjective, expressing merely the property or quality in 
concreto without affirmation, may be dispensed with, the 
connection of a substance with a quality or property being 
expressible by the noun and verb. Thus, a good man is 
equivalent to a man with, or join, goodness. Adverbs, which 
have been termed attributes of the second order, are nothing 
but abbreviations, as here for in this place, bravely for brave- 
like ; these, therefore, cannot be considered essentials in 
language. In the same manner it might be shewn that all 
parts of speech, noun and verb excepted, are either substi- 
tutes or abbreviations, convenient indeed, but not indis- 
pensably requisite." 

We will not ask. whether the foregoing illustrations are 
proofs of the hypothesis, which the writer maintains, but we 
will proceed to examine the truth of that proposition which 
has hitherto misled some of our most reputable philologists. 



PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 15 

The pronoun appears the least essential part of speech \ 
but let any one, who has occasion to speak of himself, sub- 
stitute his proper name instead of the pronoun 7", and, in 
most cases, he would fail to make himself understood ; but 
the utility, if not the indispensable necessity, of personal 
pronouns is evident from the fact that the proper names of 
individuals who converse are not always known, and, if pro- 
nouns were abolished, the preliminary of fixing names must 
be settled before strangers could carry on a conversation. The 
indispensable use of adjectives and definitives can, however, 
be more clearly demonstrated. 

"If it were possible," says Mr. Locke, " that every par- 
ticular thing should have a distinct particular name, it would 
be useless, because it would not serve to the chief end of lan- 
guage. Men would in vain heap up names of particular things 
that would not serve them to communicate their thoughts. 
Men learn names, and use them in talk with others, only 
that they may be understood, which is then only done when 
by use, or consent, the sound I make by the organs of speech 
excites in another man's mind who hears it the idea I apply 
to it in mine. This cannot be done by names applied to 
particular things, whereof I alone having the ideas in my 
mind, the names of them could not be significant or intel- 
ligible to another who was not acquainted with all those very , 
particular things which had fallen under my notice." 

"Now from this necessity of general terms," observes 
Mr. Tooke, " follows immediately the necessity of the 
article* whose business it is to reduce their generality, and 
upon occasion, to enable us to employ general terms for 
particulars. 

The origin of the composition of ideas may be traced to 
that act of the mind by which it is enabled to attribute 
qualities or circumstances to nouns. Every simple propo- 
sition, whether true or false, is the result of comparison. 
Thus a man is called 'good or bad, in proportion as his 
conduct corresponds to the abstract notions of the speaker, 
in reference to the import of the terms goodness and badness ; 

* Notwithstanding this concession, Mr. Tooke adopts the principle that 
the noun and verb are the only necessary parts of speech. 



16 PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 

he may possess the quality ascribed to him but he cannot be 
said to be that quality; for this, in every case where the 
terms were not synonymous, would imply a gross absurdity — 
as man is goodness, woman is gentleness. 

When we say virtue is happiness — vice is misery, — we 
speak figuratively, but not correctly, for happiness is the 
result of virtue, and misery the consequence of vice ; but if 
we affirm that virtue is amiable, and vice detestable, we speak 
correctly, for amiable and detestable are the names of attributes 
predicated as existing in the nouns, and these qualities not 
being made the subjects of affirmation, the mind does not 
recognise them as existing distinct from their substantives, 
but as inherent, and forming a part of the ideas represented 
by the words virtue and vice. 

Our knowledge of the nature of any object of thought can 
extend no farther than to the perception of the several attributes 
connected with such object, for we know and distinguish 
things only by their qualities. The composition of terms is 
the consequence of the composition of ideas, and thence the 
true source of abbreviation. The imperfection of language 
is, however, so great, that several terms are sometimes re- 
quired, in order to express a complex idea ; — as, " a man 
that has not music in his soul/' " a truly benevolent mind," 
" a virtuous woman." 

It is no argument against this subserviency of terms to 
ideas to say that single words which represent complex ideas 
may be resolved into more simple terms, each of which may 
represent a distinct idea, for the object denominated by the 
single term requires the whole of the simple terms to complete 
the sign by which that particular idea is to be represented: — 
thus, a holy man and a saint are equivalent names; "one who 
dies for religion " is a martyr ; and " a cruel and oppressive 
ruler " is a tyrant. 

Now Mr. Tooke affirms that the composition of ideas is 
merely a contrivance of language, and that the only compo- 
sition is in the terms. This opinion is so contrary to the 
experience of every one who has attentively considered the 
operations of the human mind, and the ideas with which it 
is impressed, that it would not deserve notice if it were not 
used by the author as an argument in favour of his Theory 



PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 17 

of Language. It will be seen that Mr. Tooke considers ideas 
to be subservient to terms, whereas the converse of the pro- 
position is generally admitted, for " Language signifies the 
expression of our ideas by certain articulate sounds, which 
are used as the signs of those ideas." 

There are very few words which represent pure and un- 
compounded ideas, but this does not prove that the composi- 
tion of ideas is the result of abbreviation of terms ; for the 
names of complex ideas are as necessary in recording our 
thoughts as are the names of those simple ideas from which 
the complex are derived. 

Mr. Tooke affirms that " the only composition is in the 
terms, and that it is as improper to speak of a complex idea 
as it would be to call a constellation a complex star, and that 
they are not ideas, but merely terms which are general and 
abstract." 

In answer to the assertions of Mr. Tooke, we may remark 
that the words constellation, mob, city, &c, are the repre- 
sentatives of as distinct single objects of thought as the terms 
star and man, and it would be as absurd to call a mob a com- 
plex man, or a city a complex house, as it is to deny that 
constellation and city are the names of complex single ideas. 
For the word mob, or constellation, or city, represents the 
whole as a collection, without reference to the individuals 
which compose that collection. Hence the difference of 
agreement in nouns of multitude : when the complex idea is 
present in the mind of the speaker, the verb is singular, and 
agrees with the abstract noun which represents the idea, 
formed by viewing a collection of individuals as a whole or 
entire object. But it is by this kind of sophistry that Mr. 
Tooke has attempted to impose upon his readers. 

" All words/' says Mr. Tooke, " are the names of things ; 
for that is not a word which is not the name of a thing ; but 
a noun substantive is the name of a thing, and nothing more." 
If this reasoning be correct, then, the interjections are names 
of things, — for they are both sounds and signs ; yet few will 
allow that they represent objects of thought, even when 
they are artificially employed ; therefore, they (although signs 
significant of emotions) are not the names of things, nor do 
the words by which they are expressed denote distinct ideas. 

c 



18 PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 

Let us proceed to examine how Mr. Tooke makes the 
adjective " a noun and something more." 

"Good represents all the ideas signified by the term good- 
ness ; and all the difference between a substantive (as 
goodness) and its corresponding adjective (good) is, that by 
some small difference of termination, we are enabled, when 
we employ the sign of an idea, to communicate at the same 
time to the hearer that such sign is then meant to be added 
to another sign, in such a manner as that the two signs to- 
gether may answer the purpose of one complex term, and 
this contrivance is merely an abbreviation in the sorts of 
words, to supply the want of an abbreviation in terms. " 

Now this contrivance, which Mr. Tooke seems to think 
so lightly of, is just sufficient to signify that the noun adjec- 
tive means something less* as well as something more than it 
did when it stood only for the name of a thing, for it takes 
away the notion of the separate existence of the attribute, 
and by thus lessening its force of signification, renders it fit 
to be associated with a noun, and the noun and its attribute 
supply the want of a complex term ; and what but the com- 
position of ideas, and the impossibility of finding a distinct 
name for every individual object of perception, has produced 
this necessity for adjectives in language. 

The example given by Mr. Tooke, in proof that an adjec- 
tive and its noun are equally names of things, and convey 
distinct ideas to the mind, will perhaps convince the reader 
of the error of such an opinion. 

Ex. — " A holy man. Here is a difference of termination 
in one sign, holiness, to show us that it is to be joined to 
another sign, man, and that these two together are to serve 
the purpose of one complex term. In this last instance our 
language enables us to exchange them both for one complex 
term, which we cannot do with good man, and instead of a 
holy man to say a saint." 

We need scarcely here repeat, that whatever words are 
used to define a noun, these, with the noun, are equivalent 
to a complex term, and are to be taken as the sign of a 
complex idea. 

* " Quodlibet suhstantivum adjective positum df.gf.nkuat in adjeotivum." 



PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 19 

Mr. Tooke proceeds: — " In some cases our language is so 
deficient as not to enable us to use either of these methods, 
when we want to express a certain collection of ideas to- 
gether, and we then have recourse sometimes to prepositions, 
and sometimes to another expedient. If we speak, we do it 
by joining the terms close in pronunciation; if we write, we 
do it by using a mark of junction, thus -, which mark is 
not a word, nor a letter, because it is not a sign of a sound, 
but is itself what a word should be, the immediate sign of an 
idea, with this difference, that it is conveyed to the eye only, 
not to the ear." 

Mr. Tooke here affirms that the hyphen, which is a sign 
only to the eye, is nevertheless the representative of an idea; 
now we all know that the hyphen is used merely to show 
that one word is to be joined to another, and that two or 
more terms so united form a complex term : but this sign of 
our intention or desire to have such terms united, is not the 
sign of an idea, and it is only necessary when we communi- 
cate our thoughts to others in writing. 

The predicating verb, or that word which simply affirms, 
is also a mere sign. It is neither the name of a thing, nor 
the representative of an idea; yet it is so essential to the 
communication of thought, that grammarians denominate it 
the "chief word" in every sentence. There can be no propo- 
sition without the sign of affirmation, but it does not follow 
that a distinct word is necessary when this sign is required. 
The juxta-position of the noun and the attribute, or a modi- 
fication of the latter, is often sufficient, and this union of the 
sign with a noun denotes activity, or state of being, and has 
given rise to that numerous class of words called verbs, so 
called because the force of affirmation is often included in 
the attribute, as he walks, for he is walking ; the horse trots, 
for the horse is trotting. 

Some grammarians," says Dr. Jones, " overlooking the 
force of juxta-position, and judging of the importance of the 
substantive verb from its frequent use in modern speech, 
have hence supposed it absolutely necessary to the existence 
of language, and that no proposition can be communicated 
without it. But if those critics had been conversant with, 
and drawn their inferences from, the more ancient lan- 

c 2 



20 PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 

guages, they would not have advanced such a groundless 
assertion. In Hebrew the substantive verb is comparatively 
of rare occurrence, and its place is supplied by the colloca- 
tion of the terms to be connected, a principle in itself 
extremely simple, and suggested by the great law of the 
human mind. In those derived immediately from the 
Hebrew, it is used oftener, yet not so often as in modern 
tongues ; and I know not whether it be a fact, capable of 
proof, that the earlier Greek writers, whose situations enabled 
them to be conversant with the Egyptian or the Asiatic 
tongues, are less frequent in its use than the later Greeks. 
But, be this as it may, it appears to be certain that the 
usual collocation of the substantive verb, either in the begin- 
ning or end of a clause, and not in the middle, arose from a 
desire of keeping together words that are related as subject 
and predicate." 

From this we perceive that the word which denotes affir- 
mation is not so essential for the communication of thought 
as those terms expressing objects and attributes, and this is 
the case with all those words which are merely signs, or have 
no determinate meaning, being known only by their use. 

" No simple word," says Mr.Tooke, " can imply assertion. 
Till one single thing can be found to be a couple, one single 
word cannot make an ad-sersion, or an c^-firmation, for 
there is joining in that operation, and there can be no 
junction of one thing." 

Mr. Tooke appears to have fallen into the error of gram- 
marians, and has included the predicate or attribute with the 
sign that unites it with the subject; but surely a very slight 
knowledge of the structure of language, or the rules of logic, 
will inform us that the copula frequently implies nothing 
more than mere assertion ; nor can this sign mean a couple 
when it merely unites two terms, which the mind had 
previously associated in the composition of its ideas.* 

But the verb to be sometimes implies existence, and it is 
then the sign of that idea, and represents while it affirms that 

* This property of the verb to be has been noticed by grammarians. " It 
appears" says Mr. Lewis, " that this verb, when placed after or before a 
noun or pronoun, only places it in a situation or makes it capable of being 
joined to something else. " 



PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 21 

attribute in the subject. " What is is," says Mr. Locke, 
" and it is impossible for the same thing to be, and not to be." 

In this example the copula implies existence, as well as 
affirmation, and may be supplied by that verb, viz. " What 
exists, exists, and it is impossible for the same thing to exist, 
and not to exist; but this exchange cannot take place when 
the predicating verb is used merely as a copula, and the 
notion of existence is not included. 

"By removing the sign," says Mr. Harris, "by which 
assertion is implied, the verb is destroyed." This proves 
that the essence of the verb consists in affirmation. The 
attribute is called a participle, when it is distinct from the 
verb, and when it includes the notions of time and activity. 
This can only be the case when the sign of affirmation is 
also expressed, as he is tired, they are travelling. When the 
attribute is joined to a noun it becomes an adjective, as 
tired horses, wearied travellers. 

The constant effort of the mind, while communicating its 
thoughts, is to express its ideas by signs, significant of the 
combinations of objects and their attributes as they exist in 
the mind, and to form complex terms for complex ideas; 
but in order to explain the different combinations, and the 
relation which one idea bears to another, or one collection of 
ideas to another collection, certain words are necessary, the 
most essential of which is the sign of affirmation ; next to this 
in importance, in the construction of sentences, are the pre- 
positions and conjunctions; but as grammarians have not 
attempted to show how these words may be dispensed with, 
we shall, for the present, decline the task of proving their 
indispensable utility. 

Adverbs follow the same rule as adjectives. They are 
added to other words to increase or diminish the signification, 
and thus supply the want of more appropriate complex 
terms. They denote, more accurately, the degrees of qualities, 
and the manner of action, and could not be dispensed with 
unless new words, or an increase of termination pointed out 
the addition made to or the modification of the original 
idea. 

Some authors imagine that because adverbs may be ex- 
pressed by a circumlocution, or be resolved into other parts 



22 PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE, 

of speech, they are not therefore essential to language. But 
independently of the adverbial signification of the phrases, 
"in a high degree/' "in a bravelike manner," we find the 
noun and its attributes attended by a preposition, and this 
sufficiently demonstrates that the indeclinable parts of speech, 
or equivalent phrases, are essential to language. 

Mr. Tooke has laid great stress on the manner of signifi- 
cation, and intimates that we are to acquire our knowledge 
of the meaning and nature of words by attending to their 
manner of signification. But he should have explained what 
is meant by the manner of signification, and wherein it 
differs from the signification itself. 

The manner of signification, if it mean any thing, appears 
to amount to this, — a modification of an idea necessarily 
requires a modification in the term which represents that 
idea, and that the composition and modification of terms is 
the result of the composition and modification of ideas. For 
abbreviation in language, "for the sake of despatch," occurs 
only when some word or words are omitted, being (to use a 
grammarian's phrase) understood ; but this is a very different 
kind of abbreviation from that which arises from the com- 
plexity of ideas, where a complex idea includes many simple 
ideas, and is sometimes represented by a single word. 

Mr. Tooke was right in his observation, that all words were 
not immediately the signs of things or of ideas; but he seems 
to have erred greatly when he denied the necessity of the 
several parts of speech. Many words in common use are 
abbreviations, while some are signs of other words, used for 
the sake of despatch. Yet attributes require appropriate 
terms, significant of their limited force, and their peculiar 
manner of signification. Such words are comprehended 
under verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. Definitives answer the 
purpose of proper names, and pronouns are put for other 
words. 

Our perceptions steal upon us so early in life, and are so 
soon associated with words, that it is with difficulty we per- 
suade ourselves there is no necessary connection between 
ideas, and the signs which represent them. To give names 
to individual objects was probably the first step towards 
establishing a primitive language; but a mere catalogue of 



PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 23 

names would not be sufficient to enable a man to communicate 
his thoughts; other signs are indispensably necessary; and 
those who tell us that " if we had a distinct name for every 
individual object of sensation or thought, language would 
then be composed purely of proper names," should show us 
how these names could be arranged, so as to render their 
several relations distinct and intelligible. Until this has 
been accomplished we may reasonably infer that the asser- 
tions of Mr. Tooke and others on this point are unfounded, 
and tend only to mislead those who wish to acquire a cor- 
rect knowledge of the principles and structure of language. 
We shall, therefore, adhere to the established classification 
of words, and proceed to notice, severally, the parts of speech, 
in the order which they have been given at the commence- 
ment of this chapter. 



CHAPTER III. 



THE ARTICLE. 

" Without the article, or some equivalent invention, men could not com- 
municate their thoughts at all." — Horne Tooke. 

" The use of the articles a and the in English is to convert general terms 
into particular ones. This idea of particularity, as a quality or property 
of a noun, ia one of the primary ideas suggested by these articles, and 
the other is that of its appertaining to some particular noun sub- 
stantive, without which it is not intelligible." — Darwin. 

A slight acquaintance with the principles of language 
will convince any one how vague the usual description of 
this part of speech is when confined to the terms a and the. 
" Articles," says Mr. Murray, " are words put before nouns, 
to point them out, and to show how far their signification 
extends." 

This definition applies to all words which restrict or point 
out a noun, and individuation cannot therefore be considered 
exclusively the characteristic distinction of articles. The 
specific properties of these words remain undefined. 

" Had we a distinct name for every individual object of 
sensation or thought, language would then be composed 
purely of proper names, and thus become too great a load for 
any memory to retain. Language, therefore, must be com- 
posed of general signs, that it may be remembered; and as 
all our sensations and perceptions are of single objects, it 
must also be capable of denoting individuals. Now, what- 
ever mode be adopted to render general terms significant of 
individual objects, or whatever auxiliaries be employed for 
this purpose, the general term, with its individuating word, 
must be regarded as a substitute for a proper name. Thus, 
man is a general term, to denote the whole of a species; if I 
say "the man," "this man," "that man," it is obvious that 



PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 25 

the words the, this, and that, termed definitives, serve with 
the general term, as a substitute for the proper name of the 
individual."* 

From the preceding observations we learn that articles 
supply the place of proper names; but grammarians, over- 
looking the economy of words, have excluded many from 
this class, because the terms imply a more extensive mean- 
ing than the simple definitives a and the. 

The necessity of articles, or some equivalent invention, is 
generally admitted by Etymologists, though, at the same 
time, they deny the article to be a necessary part of speech. 

"The visible and individual substances of nature," says 
Mr. Harris, " are infinitely more numerous than for each to 
admit of a particular name. To supply this defect, when 
any individual occurs which either wants a proper name, or 
whose proper name is not known, we ascertain it as well as 
we can, by referring it to its species, or if its species be 
unknown, then at least to some genus. "f 

But this reference is not sufficient, for to whatever species 
or genus the object may be referred, it still wants an essential 
characteristic, by which it may be known from every other 
of its kind ; therefore when a general term is used to denote 
an individual, it is necessary first to attach some circumstance 
or quality to that particular object, by which it may be 
identified; this property or quality being affixed, the definite 
article will recal the circumstance, and will afterwards serve 
as a proper name to distinguish that particular individual 
from others of its kind. For the article causes a review in 
the mind, and refers to something previously known con- 
cerning the object represented by the general term. 

The use of the articles a and the has been thus explained 
and exemplified by Mr. Harris: — 

"A respects our primary perception, and denotes indivi- 
duals as unknown; the respects our secondary perception, 
and denotes individuals as known. To explain by an example 
— I see an object pass by which I never saw till now. What 
do I say? — There goes a man with a long beard. The man 
departs, and returns a week after; what do I say then? — 

* Dr. Crombie, — Etymology and Syntax of the English Language, p. 18. 
t Hermes, book ii. chap. 1. 



26 PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 

There goes the man with the long beard. The article only 
is changed, the rest remains unaltered. Yet mark the force 
of this apparently minute change: — The individual once 
vague is now recognized as something known, and that 
merely by the efficacy of this latter article, which tacitly 
insinuates a kind of previous acquaintance, by referring the 
present perception to a like perception already past."* 

The indefinite articlef may be considered as a name appli- 
cable to each individual of a class or species, but attached to 
none. It applies to no particular object, comprehended 
under the general term. It cannot, therefore, identify the 
individual, since it refers to no peculiar property of the 
noun; for every tree may be called a tree, and every plant a 
plant, when the general notion of its genus or species is 
alone considered. But every tree is not understood when 
we say the tree, nor is every plant the plant, for the mind is 
directed by the article the to some particular individual of 
the species, which the speaker has previously denned, or is 
about to particularize by a subsequent definition, as— 

" The man that hath no music in himself, 

And is not moved with concord of sweet sound, 
Is fit for treasons. 

Here the words in italics define the noun, and justify the 
application of the definite article. 

The indefinite article is so called because it does not 
define the noun, nor does it refer the mind to any particular 
individual of the class, which the general term, in its unli- 
mited application, comprehends. In the example adduced 
by Mr. Harris, we find that the man and his beard had both 
been recognized, and therefore the definite article (the) is 
properly used before the two nouns; for there goes the man 
with a long beard, would imply that the man had been pre- 
viously known by some other circumstance, and that the 
beard was a new object, or primary perception. But let us 

* Hermes, book ii. chap. 1. 

t "It is the nature of both the articles to determine or limit the thing 
spoken of. A determines it to be one single thing of the kind, leaving it 
still uncertain which ; the determines which it is, or of many which they 
are." — Murray. 



PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 27 

illustrate the properties of both articles by another example, 
— "A critic is like a dog at a feast/' 

In this example the three nouns are spoken of indefinitely, 
and the general terms are only so far limited by the article 
that they may represent individuals, and not the classes to 
which those individuals severally belong; nor will the ad- 
dition of adjectives render their individuality determinate. 

Ex. 2.— A true critic is like a hungry dog, at a sumptuous 
feast. 

Here the general terms are limited to distinct classes by 
the adjectives, but the individuals are still undefined. The 
particular critic, dog, and feast, are unknown. They have 
received no particular names, nor have any circumstances 
been attached to them by which they may be distinguished 
from other individuals of the same classes, possessing the 
like qualities. Nor will the definite article identify the pre- 
cise individuals. 

Ex. 3. — The critic is like the dog at the feast. 

Here the definitions or peculiar characteristics of the 
nouns are still wanting, and the particular objects are there- 
fore not recognized. For it may be asked, — what critic? 
what dog? what feast? This leads us to conclude that the 
article the merely supplies the place of the definitive/either 
expressed or understood, and in this respect it bears a 
striking analogy to the personal and other pronouns. 

The article a separates a noun indefinitely from its class, 
and without any distinct reference to number, as a plant, a 
tree, a man. The expressions, one plant, one tree, one man, 
include the idea of quantity, and would therefore be felt to 
express more than the speaker intended. The numeral adjec- 
tive one, is however occasionally employed in the indefinite 
manner of the article, and without having any distinct 
reference to numbers, as " Whachum, according to Sir Roger 
L'Estrange, was one Thomas Jones, a foolish Welshman. 
According to another commentator, he is said to have been 
one Richard Green." This use of the numeral, however, 
cannot be recommended for its elegance. Dr, Crombie has, 
with his usual ability, demonstrated the difference between 
the numeral adjective one, and the articles a or an. 

" Though our words," says the learned writer, " are 



28 PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 

general, all our perceptions are individual, having single 
existences for their objects. It is often necessary, however, 
to express two, three, or more of these individual existences, 
and hence arises the use of that species of words which have 
been called numerals, that is, words denoting number. To 
signify unity, or one of a class, our forefathers employed ae 
or ane, as ae man, ane ox. When unity, or the number one, 
as opposed to two or more, was to be expressed, the emphasis 
would naturally be laid on the word significant of unity ; and 
when unity was not so much the object as the species or 
kind, the term expressive of unity would naturally be unem- 
phatical; and hence ae, by celerity of pronunciation, would 
become a, and ane be shortened into an. The words a and 
an are now termed indefinite articles; it is clear, however, 
they are truly numerals, belonging to the same class with 
two, three, four, &c. , or, perhaps, more properly, these 
numerals may be considered as abbreviations, for the re- 
peated expression of the term one. By whatever name 
these terms a, an, may be designed, it seems evident that 
they were originally synonymous with the name of unity, or 
rather themselves names of unity, emphasis only distinguish- 
ing whether unity or the species were chiefly intended. 
Hence a or an cannot be joined with a plural noun." 

" Some grammarians, indeed, have asserted, that in every 
example where a or an occurs, the term one may be substi- 
tuted in its stead, without, in the least degree, injuring the 
sense. As far as the primary idea denoted by these words 
is concerned, this opinion is doubtless incontrovertible, for 
they each express unity; but with regard to the secondary 
or implied ideas which these terms convey, the difference is 
obvious. An example will illustrate this, — If I say, Will 
one man be able to carry this burden so far? I evidently 
oppose one to more, and the answer might be, No ; but two 
men will. Let us substitute the term a, and say, Will a man 
be able to carry this burden? Ts the idea nowise changed 
by this alteration? I apprehend it is, for the answer might 
naturally be, No, -but a horse will. I have here substituted 
a for one, the converse will equally show that the terms are 
by no means mutually convertible or strictly synonymous. 
If, instead of saying ' A horse, a horse, a kingdom for a 



PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 29 

horse !' 1 should say, ' one horse, one horse, one kingdom 
for one horse;' the sentiment, I conceive, would not be 
strictly the same. In both expressions the species is named, 
and in both one of that species is demanded, but with this 
difference, that in the former the name of the species is the 
emphatic word, and it opposes that species to every other ; 
in the latter, unity of object seems the leading idea — ' one 
kingdom for one horse.' In this respect our language 
appears to me to have a decided superiority over those lan- 
guages where one word performs the office of what we term 
an article, and at the same time denotes the idea of unity. 
Donner moi un livre, means either give me one book, i.e. not 
two or more books, or give me a book, that is, a book, not 
something else."* 

A noun appellative, without an article to restrict its signi- 
fication, represents the whole class, without referring to the 
individuals comprehended under the general term, as " Lan- 
guage consists of intelligible signs." But when a proper name, 
or an equivalent adjective, is added to an appellative, the 
article is no longer required, as " English language consists 
chiefly of general terms." Usage, however, permits the 
article the to be placed before the adjective; but as there is 
but one English language, properly so called, the article is 
superfluous, unless the noun be thought to require an addi- 
tional term to render it more emphatic, or to distinguish the 
English language from its dialects. The adjective, English, 
serves as a definitive to language; but should the same lan- 
guage be again mentioned, the article the would sufficiently 
define it, as " English language is chiefly composed of 
general terms, and in this respect the language differs but 
little from other languages." The generally refers to some 
known object, or to some definitive, either expressed or 
understood ; by definitive, we mean that word, or combina- 
tion of words, by which a noun is separated and distinguished 
from every other of its species: for example, " It is by no 
means the same thing to assert that pleasure is a good, or 
the good; the first only makes it a common object of desire, 
upon a level with many others which daily raise our wishes ; 

* Etymology and Syntax, pp. 53, 54. 



30 PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 

the last supposes it that supreme and sovereign good — the 
ultimate scope of all our actions and endeavours."* 

When no particular object, therefore, is referred to by 
the speaker, the indefinite article limits the signification of 
the general term to an individual. Individuation is the 
extent of its use, though its primary meaning may be that 
of unity. It separates, but does not particularise, the noun 
to which it is attached, while the both separates and limits 
the noun, and often supplies the place of a proper name. 

Both the articles may be applied to the same appellative 
in a compound sentence, but the indefinite can be used only 
once, and not after the noun has been associated with any 
circumstance, by which it may be known from others of its 
kind. 

Ex.- — A hare ran across a field, belonging to a farmer; 
but the hare had scarcely quitted the field before the farmer 
entered it, with a gun in his hand : the gun was loaded, and 
the hare would probably have been killed had it loitered in 
the field. 

Attempts have been made by some grammarians to class 
under the term definitive all words which are used to define 
nouns; — the words one, two, three, all, every, few, both, each, 
either, neither, whether, or, other, several, some, many, first, 
second, third, former, latter, this, that, are by them called 
definitives, because when these words are placed before 
nouns they serve to define or point them out; but if this 
arrangement were adopted, we see no reason why adjectives, 
and participles used as adjectives, should be excluded from 
the class of definitives; for these words are employed to 
describe nouns, and to limit the signification of general 
terms. 

An eminent writer has remarked, that "It would be 
advantageous if all words modifying nouns were classed 
under adjectives;" but the primary and more important use 
of adjectives appears to preclude the practicability of such an 
arrangement,, 

The peculiar force and advantages of the articles a and the 
have been pointed out by Dr. Hugh Blair, in his Lectures 

* Hermes, book i. chap. . 1 . 



PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 31 

on Rhetoric, and the following extract from that work will 
convince the reader that, in this respect at least, our lan- 
guage excels the Latin: — 

" Articles contribute much to the clearness and precision 
of language. In order to illustrate this, remark what dif- 
ference there is in the meaning of the following expressions, 
in English, depending wholly on the different employment 
of the articles : — ' The son of a king, — the son of the king, — 
a son of the king's.' Each of these three phrases has an 
entirely different meaning, which I need not explain, because 
any one who understands the language conceives it clearly at 
first hearing, through the different application of the articles 
a and the. Whereas, in Latin, ' Filius regis,' is wholly unde- 
termined ; and to explain in which of these three senses it is 
to be understood (for it may bear any of them), a circumlo- 
cution of several words must be used. In the same manner, 
'Are you a king?' ' are you the king?' are questions of quite 
separate import, which, however, are confounded together in 
the Latin phrase, 'Esne tu rex.' 'Thou art a man' is a 
very general and harmless position ; but ' thou art the man' 
is an assertion capable, we know, of striking terror and 
remorse into the heart.' "* 



SYNTAX OF ARTICLES. 

The indefinite article is used before nouns in the singular 
number only, as a woman, an angel, or before a noun of mul- 
titude, when the individuals represented by the term are 
collectively considered, as an army, a herd, a score, a thou- 



The definite article is used before nouns in the singular or 
in the plural number, as the army, the armies, the man, the 
men. 

A noun appellative, without an article to limit its signifi- 
cation, applies to the species only, and not to any individual 
or individuals, otherwise than as belonging to such species, 
as " Men are more courageous than women." 

* Blair — Structure of Language, Lect. viii. 



32 PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 

"The natural associators with articles," says Mr. Harris, 
'■ are all those common appellatives which denote genera or 
species of beings. It is these which, by assuming a different 
article, serve either to explain an individual upon its first being 
perceived, or else to indicate, upon its return, a recognition, 
or repeated knowledge. Those are the men, means, those are 
individuals of which we possess some previous knowledge. 
Those are men, — the article apart means no more than they 
are so many vague and uncertain individuals; just as the 
phrase, a man, in the singular, implies one of the same 
number." 

Remarks on the use of the Indefinite Article. 

Many writers repeat the indefinite article when words 
joined by a conjunction require a different form of the 
article. Instead of saying, " Mary is an amiable and vir- 
tuous woman," it would be considered more correct to say, 
" Mary is an amiable and a virtuous woman." The last 
form of expression is also more emphatic. 

But when adjectives or nouns refer to the same individual, 
and the construction does not require a change in the form 
of the definitive, it is better to omit the article before the last 
noun or adjective, — as "A wise and prudent man," — The 
secretary and treasurer of the institution," — " The great 
moralist and philosopher." 

A rather unphilosophical method has been recommended 
by Dr. Irving, and other grammarians, in cases of impro- 
priety arising from ellipsis of the article : — 

" Sometimes," says that writer, " the ellipsis is improperly 
applied to nouns of different numbers, as — a beautiful field 
and trees. In this case, we should use another adjective, as 
— a beautiful field, and fine trees; or put the nouns in the 
same number, and say — beautiful fields, and fine trees." 

But it may be asked, What if the trees be not fine? or 
suppose the speaker has neither intention nor motive for 
describing them? or how can a field, with the least shadow 
of propriety, be made plural? This rule of grammar is as 
false in principle as it is in fact. A beautiful field with trees, 
obviates the difficulty. 



PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 33 

The indefinite article sometimes has the meaning of each 
or every, as ten shillings a bushel, i.e. each bushel; once a 
year, i.e. every year. 

The utility of this article as a definitive may be perceived 
in the following example: — 

" If miracles were again to be wrought in favour of 
humanity, the most beneficial would be a common faith and 
common language." It should be, a common language, i.e. 
a universal language. 

"The use of a" says Mr. Tooke, " after the word many, 
is a corruption for of, and has no connection whatever with 
the article a, i.e. one. Instead of this corrupt a, after many 
was formerly written of, without the corruption, as — 

'Ye spend a great many of words in vain/ 
' I have spoken a many of words,' 

and innumerable instances may be produced of the same 
manner of expression. As for the collective nature of the 
idea that is confined to the word many: — many is indeed a 
collective term, and may therefore be preceded by the article 
a; but message is not a collective term, therefore many a 
message is not right. It should be a many of messages." 

Notwithstanding the observations of Mr. Tooke, the phrase 
appears to be correct, and perhaps the only one that could 
express, in so few words, the meaning of many messages sent 
singly. The derivation of many, from miscere, to mix, to 
mingle, tends rather to obscure the meaning of this idiom, 
for the messages are neither mixed nor mingled, but sent 
one by one, and distinct from each other, and are thus 
scantled out by the writer, when he ingeniously places the 
indefinite article between the collective term many and the 
singular noun message; nor are the ideas of mixed, associated, 
or company, implied by many, but the collective quantity is 
alone referred to. 

Mr. Murray's observations on this idiom are to the pur- 
pose: — " The indefinite article is sometimes placed between 
the adjective many and a singular noun, as — 

' Full many a gem, of purest ray serene, 
The deep unfathomed caves of ocean bear; 
Full many a flower is born to blush unseen, 
And waste its sweetness on the desert air.' 



34 PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 

In these lines, "many a gem," and "many a flower," 
refer to many gems, and many flowers, separately, not 
collectively, considered. 

As the modification of the indefinite article is intended to 
assist pronunciation, it should occur in those cases where 
euphony requires it. 

A is now used before all words beginning with a conso- 
nant, and h aspirated, and likewise before words beginning 
with u, pronounced long, and the dipthongs eu, ew, sounded 
you; also before the word one, as a man, a heart, a union, 
a university, a European, a ewe, and such a one. 

It has been justly remarked, that sometimes a virtual 
consonant exists at the beginning of a word, without being 
written, as in union and once, where the ear catches the 
initial sound of y and w, as younion and wunce. Before 
such words it is customary to drop the final letter of the 
article, at least in pronunciation, and there can be no good 
reason for not writing — a union, a once beloved monarch. 

An is used before all vowels, except in the cases before 
mentioned, as — an essay, an island, an uproar. This primi- 
tive form of the article is also retained before words begin- 
ning with silent h, as — an hour, an honest man; and also 
before the h aspirated, when the accent is on the second 
syllable, as — an heroic action, an historical picture. 



Remarks on the use of the Definite Article. 

The definite article is sometimes used before an adjective, 
to denote an individual eminently distinguished for some 
particular quality, as— Aristides the just, John the divine, 
Charles the bad ; or to denote a class of individuals expressed 
by an adjective, used as a general term, as — the just; but if 
the adjective be not construed, as a general term, the noun 
understood is in the singular number, as — the just man. 

" The gods love the modest, but hate the arrogant." In 
this example the adjectives, modest and arrogant, with the 
article, are equivalent to " modest men," " arrogant men," 
and are thus construed in the original. 

The definite article is often used before a general term, to 



PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 35 

distinguish an individual from others of the same name, as — 
John the baptist, John the evangelist, King Charles the 
martyr, Bruce the traveller. The epithets in these examples 
distinguish the individuals from others of the same name, 
and not from individuals of the same kind; as — the traveller 
distinguishes Bruce from other Bruces, not from other 
travellers, for in this case the proper name is sufficient. 

The definite article frequently indicates a general reference, 
and denotes the character of a species, rather than a parti- 
cular individual, as may be seen in the following examples: — 

" It is precisely the sort of work we should have expected 
from the author, in which the learning of the scholar and the 
fancy of the novelist blend to illustrate the genius of the 
poet." That is, the learning of a scholar and the fancy of 
a novelist blend to illustrate the genius of a poet. 

The is also used indefinitely, when an individual is taken 
to represent a species, as — 

"The poet, the moralist, and the divine, speak in the 
praise of virtue." That is, poets, moralists, and divines, 
speak in the praise of virtue. 

In the following example, also, the definite article has a 
more general reference than when it is applied to a known 
individual: — 

Read the grammar throughout often ; consult it on every 
difficulty. 

The particular grammar here alluded to is that used by 
the student, and the definite article might have been sup- 
plied by the more expressive definitive, your, — read your 
grammar often. 

Appellative nouns, restricted by this article, are occasionally 
used emphatically, to denote individuals, as — the city, means 
London; the speaker, a high officer in the British parlia- 
ment. Thus, among the Greeks, the poet meant Homer, 
and the stagerite meant Aristotle ; not that there were not 
many poets beside Homer, and many stagerites beside 
Aristotle, but none equally illustrious for their poetry and 
philosophy. 

The is used emphatically before adverbs in the compara- 
tive and superlative degree, as — the wiser the better; this is 
the best. Sometimes this article is used figuratively before 

d2 



36 PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE., 

proper names, to denote indefinitely a class of individuals, 
as — Goldsmith is a very pretty poet, but not to be com- 
pared to the Popes, the Drydens, and the Otways. It is 
occasionally put for a pronoun possessive, as — 

" Ambition, half convicted of her folly, 

Hangs down the head, and reddens at the tale." 

Blair. 

We shall conclude our observations on the articles, with a 
few examples of inaccurate construction, chiefly selected 
from Dr. Lowrh's Introduction to English Grammar: — 

Ex. — " And I persecuted this way unto the death." — 
Acts xxii. 4. 

The apostle does not mean any particular sort of death, 
but death in general; the definitive article, therefore, is im- 
properly used. It ought to be — unto death — without any 
article, agreeably to the original axpi $avarn. 

But when a particular death, or the death of an individual, 
is spoken of, an article is properly employed, as — " the 
death of a traitor;" " the death of the righteous." 

Ex. — " But Pythias were unjust, did he let Damon suffer 
a death that the tyrant prepared only for Pythias." 

Ex. — "When he, the Spirit of Truth, is come, he will guide 
you into all truth." — John xvi. 13. 

This translation signifies into all truth whatsoever, — into 
truth of all kinds; very different from the meaning of the 
Evangelist, and from the original, eig uxxaav tk]v aXrjdeiay, into 
all the truth; that is, into all evangelical truth. 

In the following passage, the distinction made by the 
article between a particular truth, and truth in general, is still 
more obvious. 

Ex. "Every one that is of the truth heareth my voice. 
Pilate saith unto him, What is truth."— John xviii. 38,39.* 

Pilate alludes to truth as opposed to falsehood, and not to 
the particular doctrine pre-eminently distinguished by the 
name of the truth. 

* Hag 6 &v k- THS AAH6EIA2, d/c«et /u« rfjg 0wvi/e. — Aiyu 
ahru) 6 UiXarog TV k^iv AAH0EIA. 



PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 37 

Ex. — Truly this was the son of God. — Matt, xxvii. 54, 
and Mark xv. 39. 

" This translation supposes that the Roman centurion had 
a proper and adequate notion of the character of Jesus, as 
the son of God, in a peculiar and incommunicable sense; 
whereas, it is probable, both from the circumstance of the 
history, and from the expression of the original, that he only 
meant to acknowledge him to be an extraordinary person, 
and more than mere man, according to his own notion of 
sons of gods in the Pagan theology. This is also more 
agreeable to St. Luke's account of the same confession of the 
centurion, — " Certainly this was Sacaio, — a righteous man," 
not 6 AtKaio, — the just one. The same may be observed of 
Nebuchadnezzar's words, (Dan. iii. 25.) — " And the form of 
the fourth is like the son of God;" it ought to be by the 
indefinite article, — like a son of God, b^ioia via) Qeu ; that is, 
like an angel, according to Nebuchadnezzar's own account of 
it, in the 28th verse, — " Blessed be God, who hath sent his 
angel, and delivered his servants." See also Luke xix. 9. 

" These remarks may serve to show the great importance 
of the proper use of the article ; the near affinity there is 
between the Greek article and the English definitive article; 
and the excellence of the English language in this respect, 
which, by means of its articles, does most precisely deter- 
mine the extent of signification of common nouns; whereas 
the Greek has only one article, and it has puzzled all the 
grammarians to reduce the use of that to any clear and 
certain rules." 

"The perpetual use of the article," says Dr. Darwin, 
" besides converting general terms into particular ones, con- 
tributes much to the force and beauty of our language, from 
another circumstance, — that abstracted ideas become so 
readily personified, simply by the omission of it, which per- 
haps renders the English language better adapted to poetry 
than any other, ancient or modern." The following proso- 
popseia from Shakespeare is thus beautiful — 

" She let concealment like a worm i' ' the' bud 
Feed on her damask cheek." 

And the following line, translated from Juvenal by Dr. 



38 PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 

Johnson, is much superior to the original, owing to the easy 
personification, of worth and poverty, and the consequent 
conciseness of it : — 



" Difficile emergunt, quorum virtutibus obstat 
Res angusta domi." — 

" Slow rises worth by poverty depressed." 

To these examples, given by Dr. Darwin, may be added 
the following, in which, also, by the omission of the article, 
adjectives are converted into nouns: — 

" The wise and active conquer difficulties, 
By daring to attempt them : sloth and folly 
Shiver and shrink at sight of toil and hazard, 
And make th' impossibility they fear." 

Illustration of the use of the Definite Article. 

As there are only two articles in the English language (an 
being considered a mere modification of a,) a rule is not 
requisite to distinguish these words from the other parts of 
speech : — 

THE MEDLEY OF THE GRAVE. 

" Here are the wise, the gen : rous, and the brave ; 
The just, the good, the worthless, the profane ; 
The downright clown, and perfectly well-bred ; 
The fool, the churl, the scoundrel, and the mean ; 
The supple statesman, and the patriot stern ; 
The wrecks of nations, and the spoils of time ; 
With all the lumber of six thousand years." 

Blair. 

Illustration of the Indefinite Article. 

BUTLER'S DESCRIPTION OF HUDIBRAS' TALENTS AS 
A LOGICIAN. 

" He was in Logic a great critic, 
Profoundly skilled in analytic ; 
He could distinguish and divide 
A hair 'twixt south and south west side ; 
On either which he would dispute, 
Confute, change hands, and still confute ; 



PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 39 

He'd undertake to prove, by force 

Of argument, a man's no horse ; 

He'd prove a buzzard is no fowl, 

And that a lord may be an owl, 

A calf an alderman, a goose a justice, 

And rooks committee men and trustees ; 

He'd run in debt by disputation, 

And pay with ratiocination : — 

All this by syllogism true, 

In mood and figure he would do. 

Canto i. v. 65—80. 

These and other illustrations of the parts of speech are 
given for such readers as may be yet unacquainted with the 
classification of words. The foregoing illustrations will fur- 
nish examples to familiarize, not only the articles, but also 
nouns and adjectives, which, in the first quotation, are nearly 
the only kinds of words employed with the definitive. 

Before the practical part of grammar can be well under- 
stood, it is indispensably necessary to acquire a facility in 
distinguishing the different sorts of words. These extracts, 
therefore, may serve as progressive parsing lessons, for those 
who feel themselves deficient in this particular. 

In the first illustration, here and perfectly are adverbs; 
are, the verb, in the plural; and is a copulative conjunction; 
of and with are prepositions. These words being known, the 
nouns and adjectives will be readily distinguished, by those 
who have perused the preceding chapter. 



CHAPTER IV. 



THE NOUN. 



A noun is the simple or complex, — the particular or general, — sign or 
name of one or more ideas." — Horne Tooke. 



A noun, or substantive, represents some individual con- 
ception, and is either the name of an object which exists, or 
the sign of an idea, resulting from the operations of the 
human mind, as — man, life, immortality, virtue, army, par- 
liament. 

Every theme of men's thoughts, — whether it be an object 
capable of affecting the senses, a mere creation of the 
imagination, or a conception arising from abstract reason- 
ing, — belongs to this class of words, as—jire, dragon, goodness, 
temperance, reading, walking; to act, to work. A noun may- 
be also known by making sense of itself. 

" A noun may be considered to be at once the name of a 
thing, and the sign of the idea. But these may be separated. 
It may denote a thing without a correspondent idea, as 
when we repeat that which we do not understand; or it may 
denote an idea without a corresponding thing; such, for 
instance, are abstract terms, representing ideal not positive 
objects; such also are those words which express creatures 
of the imagination." 

From this it appears that nouns are the names of objects, 
whether such objects have a real or imaginary existence. 
They are likewise the arbitrary signs of ideas. 

Nouns represent either simple or complex ideas ; but in 
language they are. considered merely as the names of things, 
whether the ideas they stand for are simple, compound, 
complex, or collective. 

Nouns are either proper or common. 



PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 41 

A proper name is the sign by which an individual is dis- 
tinguished from the rest of the species to which it belongs, 
as London, Thames, England. 

A common name is applicable to every individual of the 
class which it denotes, and is the sign of that idea, as river, 
city, island, country. 

There is this difference between a proper name and an 
appellative, the former serves as a definitive, while the latter 
always denotes the subject of our thoughts. Thus, London 
is a large city, i.e. London City, where city is the theme and 
not the individuating word London. 

After a proper name has long been associated with a 
general term, the latter is commonly omitted, as London, 
Thames, England. The appellative is, however, sometimes 
added, as London city, Thames river. As these nouns are 
in apposition, they will not admit the sign of the possessive 
case. The city of London, the river of Thames, are inac- 
curate phrases, for the city is London, and not a city 
belonging to London. The inaccuracy is perceived when 
the relation is rendered more conspicuous, as London's city, 
Thames' river. But if we say the people of England, no 
impropriety is perceived, for people and England are distinct 
objects; and though the latter noun is used as a definitive, 
still it is not in apposition, but is equivalent to an adjective, 
and may be supplied by its derivative, — the English people. 

A name can no longer be strictly called proper when it 
represents more than one individual, at least it cannot serve 
the purpose for which proper names are given. When 
several persons are called by the same name, some circum- 
stance or epithet is necessary to distinguish one person of 
that name from others of the same name, as John Smith, 
the elder. 

Substantives become adjectives when they are joined to a 
noun, to qualify or define it, as — an oak tree, a gold watch, 
a silver spoon. 

Adjectives become nouns when used as names of classes 
of species, collectively considered, as — the English, the 
valiant, the wise, and the good. 

"The oak, the pine, and the ash, are names of whole 
classes of objects, each of which includes an immense num- 



42 PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 

ber of undistinguished individuals. Here, then, it appears 
that though the formation of abstract or general conceptions 
is supposed to be a difficult operation of the mind, such 
conceptions must have entered into the very first formation 
of language. For if we except only the proper names of 
persons, such as Csesar, John, Peter, all the other sub- 
stantive nouns which we employ in discourse are the names, 
not of individual objects, but of very extensive genera or 
species of objects, as — man, lion, house, river, &c. We are 
not, however, to imagine that this invention of general or 
abstract terms requires any great exertion of metaphysical 
capacity, for by whatever steps the mind proceeds in it, it is 
certain that when men have once observed resemblances 
among objects, they are naturally inclined to call all those 
which resemble one another by one common name, and of 
course to class them under one species." — Blair. 
To nouns belong gender, number, and case. 



Gender. 

The simplicity of the rules for denoting the genders of 
nouns in English is an advantage few languages possess. 
" The English and the Chinese are the only languages," says 
Blair, " in which the distinction of gender is properly and 
philosophically applied in the use of words, and confined, as 
it ought to be, to mark the real distinctions of male and 
female." 

All nouns in English denoting males are masculine, those 
which represent females are feminine, and all inanimate sub- 
jects are neuter. Any departure from these rules is a breach 
of the true principles upon which language is founded, and 
tends only to cause misconception and error. For, surely, 
nothing can be more absurd than to apply, on ordinary 
occasions, the ideas of masculine and feminine to inanimate 
objects, when common sense declares such nouns are neuter. 
The ancients, who worshipped "stocks and stones," had 
some excuse for this practice. They believed that the sun 
was Phoebus, and that the moon was sister to that god, and 
therefore they might, with some propriety, call the one a he, 



PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 43 

and the other a she; but when we say of the sun, he is rising, 
or of the moon, she is waning, it not only causes a confusion 
in our ideas, but approaches very near to the style of the 
most illiterate, who commonly make hes and shes of things 
which a heathen would have blushed to rank among his 
gods. 

We cannot, therefore, agree with the grammarian who 
affirms that the practice of assigning anomalous genders to 
nouns, ''forms a singular and striking beauty in our language." 
In prose it generally mars the sense, the mind being diverted 
from the real subject while contemplating an imaginary 
creation. "It is evident that neither reason nor nature has 
any share in this matter, and that in assigning sex to inani- 
mate things, the determination is purely fanciful." A few 
examples will sufficiently demonstrate the absurdity of such 
deviations from reason and common sense. 

" It was reserved for Bacon to proclaim aloud to the ear 
of Science that she could only hope to be regenerated by 
first sacrificing herself on the altar of Truth, and that if ever 
she took an upward flight, she must pass the fiery ordeal, 
and rise like a Phoenix from her own ashes." 

This may be considered fine writing, but the sense of 
incorporating all the sciences into one, and forming a crea- 
ture who was to listen to the voice of Bacon, — to attend to 
his instructions, and ultimately to sacrifice herself at the altar 
of Truth, that she might rise from her ashes like a Phoenix, — 
is too unintelligible to pass for a poetical effort of the imagi- 
nation, and is altogether inconsistent with the sobriety of 
philosophical disquisition. 

The following examples are from Dr. Campbell's Philo- 
sophy of Rhetoric : — 

Ex. — "The sphere of demonstration is narrow, but her 
sway despotic ; her rival, with less power, has the empire of 
the world. Society would perish without her, and human 
nature become extinct." 

The sphere of demonstration is, in this sentence, converted 
into a female; and if the meaning of the writer has been 
obscured by the personification, he has perhaps a still greater 
claim to sublimity of expression. " For obscurity," says 
Dr. Blair, *' is not unfavourable to the sublime. Though it 



44 PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 

render the object indistinct, the impression may be great; 
for it is one thing to make an idea clear, and another to 
make it affecting to the imagination, and the imagination 
may be strongly affected, and, in fact, often is so, by objects 
of which we have no clear conception." 

Ex. — " The natural division of man is into soul and body. 
Analogous to this are the sense and expression of discourse; 
in other words, the thought and the symbol by which it is 
communicated. It is by the sense that rhetoric holds 
of logic, and by the expression that she holds of grammar." 

Which of the sciences is here made feminine, or what the 
meaning of the last sentence, we do not pretend to unriddle. 
It is sufficient for our purpose to show that logic or 
rhetoric is personified, and that confusion and obscurity are 
the consequences. 

" I have attempted," says Campbell, " to explain what 
that use is which is the sole mistress of language, and to 
ascertain the precise import and extent of these her essentia] 
attributes, — reputable, national, and present; and to give the 
directions proper to be observed in searching for the laws of 
this empress" 

In one part of the foregoing sentence "use" is called a 
mistress, in another an empress. 

To show the facility which writers possess in personifying 
neuter nouns, we may quote another instance from a modern 
writer on language : — 

" Whatever may be -the future decision of usage — that 
great arbitress of all language (for at present she is divided,) 
Harris's arrangement seems more comformable to the strict 
meaning of the words, as well as to Priestley's own rule, 
than that which the latter recommends." 

We have remarked that the homage granted by gram- 
marians to usage — " the great arbitress of language," — is 
conferred only when some difficulty in composition compels 
the writer to decline its investigation; but when the error is 
palpable, and can be exposed, then usage — " the great arbi- 
tress," — is treated with very little ceremony. 

Dr. Blair, in his excellent lectures, observes, " that per- 
sonification is the boldest of all rhetorical figures; it is the 
style of strong passion only, and therefore never to be 



PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 45 

attempted unless when the mind is considerably heated and 
agitated. A slight personification of some inanimate thing, 
acting as if it had life, can be relished by the mind, in the 
midst of a cool description, and when its ideas are going on 
in the ordinary train. But it must be in a state of violent 
emotion, and have departed considerably from its common 
tract of thought, before it can so far realize the personifica- 
tion of an insensible object, as to conceive it listening to 
what we say, or making any return to us." 

The poet may be allowed the licence of personifying what 
he thinks proper : his art teaches him to deal in fiction, and 
to please the imagination at the expense of reason. Orators, 
too, who wish to embellish their language, that they may 
awaken the passions, or conceal the truth, may be indulged 
the use of tropes and metaphors ; but let these " flights of 
fancy" be confined, as nearly as possible, within the limits 
of their proper spheres. Let not science and philosophy be 
incumbered by such vagaries, nor let the purity of the 
English language be infringed by allowing, in ordinary dis- 
course, so gross a violation of truth and consistency; for, be 
it remembered, that, " by following the order of nature in 
the distribution of gender, our language is rendered, in this 
respect, both simple and animated;" and it should also be 
borne in mind that the majority of mankind do not aspire 
to that subtle kind of reason which can discern, even in 
things without sex, a distant analogy to that great natural 
distinction. 

The genders of nouns are distinguished in the English 
language : 

First. By different words, as — boy, girl, brother, sister. 

Secondly. By difference of termination, as — lion, lioness, 
actor, actress. 

Thirdly. By prefixing a noun, pronoun, or adjective, to 
the appellative noun, as — a man servant, a maid servant, a 
he goat, a she goat, male descendants, female descendants. 

It has been justly observed, that nouns with variable 
terminations contribute to conciseness and perspicuity of 
expression. We have only a sufficient number of them to 
make us feel our want ; for when we say of a woman, she is 



46 PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 

a philosopher, an astronomer, a builder, a weaver, we perceive 
an impropriety in the termination, which we cannot avoid ; 
but we can say, that she is a botanist, a student, a witness, a 
scholar, an orphan, a companion, because these terminations 
have not annexed to them the notion of sex. Dr. Crombie's 
remarks on this imperfection in the English language contain 
nearly every thing that it will be necessary to add concerning 
the genders of nouns. 

" It is to be observed, however, that the masculine term 
has a general meaning, expressing both male and female, and 
is always employed when the office, occupation, profession, 
&c, and not the sex, of the individual, is chiefly to be ex- 
pressed, and that the feminine term is used in those cases 
only when discrimination of sex is indispensably necessary. 
This may be illustrated by the following examples : if I say, 
' the poets of this age are distinguished more by correctness 
of taste than sublimity of conception,' I clearly include in 
the term poet, both male and female writers of poetry : if I 
say she is the best poetess in this country, I assign her the 
superiority over those only of her own sex : if I say she is 
the best poet in this country, I pronounce her superior to all 
other writers of poetry, both male and female." " Spinning/' 
says Lord Karnes, in his Sketches, "is & female* occupation, 
and must have had a female inventor." If he had said a 
female inventress, the expression would have been pleonastic : 
if he said, "must have had an inventress," he would not 
have sufficiently contrasted the male and the female, he 
would have merely predicated the necessity of an inventress. 
He, therefore, properly adopts the term inventor, as appli- 
cable to each of the sexes, limiting it to the female by the 
appropriate term. 

When distinction of sex is necessary, for the sake of 
perspicuity, or where the sex, rather than the general idea, 
implied by the term, is the primary object, a modification of 

* An occupation can have no sex. The adjective is here improperly- 
used for the definitive, a female's occupation ; but an inventor may be 
male or female ; therefore a female inventor is correct. We have seen a 
similar error publicly exhibited near London, " A female school," instead of 
a school for females. School is a neuter noun, and no one can with pro- 
priety venture to call it a she, or attach to it the notion of sex. 



PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 47 

the noun must be employed to express the female, thus : " I 
hear that some authoresses are engaged in the work." 

If we perceive an impropriety in the terms, when we say 
of a woman, she is a philosopher, or a mathematician, it is, 
perhaps, because the notion of a particular gender was origi- 
nally associated with these appellations. Hence we may 
infer, that women were formerly otherwise employed than in 
studying the laws of nature or solving the problems of Euclid ; 
neither have we yet discovered an appropriate term for a 
female professor of political economy. 



Number. 

Appellative nouns being employed to denote genera or 
species, and these orders comprising each many individuals, 
hence arises that accident of a common noun, called number, 
by which we signify whether one or more individuals of any 
genus or species be intended. 

Appellative nouns have two numbers; the singular, which 
speaks of one as plant, the plural, which speaks of more than 
one, as plants. The general rule for the formation of the 
plural of appellative nouns is to add s to the singular, as 
— horse, horses. Compound words, used to denote quan- 
tities, are made plural by adding s to the final syllable, as 
— handful, handfuls ; cartload, cartloads ; spoonful, spoon- 
fuls. The apparent inaccuracy in some of these terms arises 
from the force of signification which the component parts of 
the compound words retain. Thus some persons are induced 
to write spoonsful, barrowsful, &c. 

The exceptions to the general rule for the formation of 
the plural of nouns are — 

I . Nouns ending in ch, sh, ss, or x, form their plurals by 
adding es to the singular, as — peach, peaches ; lash, lashes ; 
loss, losses ; fox, foxes. 

The reader will readily perceive the necessity for this 
deviation from the general rule. The plural of such nouns 
cannot be distinguished from the singular, unless a distinct 
syllable be added. 



48 PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 

Nouns ending in ch hard, are formed by adding s only to 
the singular, as monarch, monarchs. 

2. Nouns ending mforfe, are made plural by changing 
f orfe into ves, as half, halves ; life, lives. 

3. Nouns ending in o, preceded by a consonant, are 
made plural by adding es to the singular, as hero, heroes ; 
except junto, canto, tyro, grotto, portico, solo and quarto, 
which are formed by adding s to the singular, as junto, juntos. 

Nouns ending in a vowel, preceded by another vowel, 
form their plurals regularly, as — folio, folios ; die, dies. 

4. Nouns ending in y, preceded by a consonant, change 
the y into ies, as — cherry, cherries. If a vowel precede the y, 
the plural is formed by adding s only, as day, — days ; and 
there is no good reason why all nouns in y should not be 
formed regularly ; the exceptions cause many errors in 
orthography, as — vollies, attornies, Anthonies, Henries. 

Nouns ending in ff, form their plurals by adding s, as — 
muffs, puffs, skiffs, cliffs. 

5. The following nouns form their plurals in en, as — man, 
men ; ox, oxen ; child, children ; woman, women ; brother 
makes brethren, when persons of the same society or pro- 
fession are designated. Nouns, expressive of whatever 
nature or art has made double or plural, have no singular, 
as — lungs, scissors, bellows, ashes. " Many of those words 
which have no singular, denote things consisting of two parts, 
and, therefore, have a plural termination. Hence the word 
pair is used with many of them, as — a pair of colours, a pair 
of drawers." 

Some nouns have no plural; 1st, Those which denote 
things measured or weighed, as — sugar, tea, wheat ; unless 
when they express varieties, as — sugars, teas, wheats. Here 
not the unlimited appellative noun is signified, but different 
species or classes of the appellative are referred to, and in 
this sense the nouns are used plurally. 2ndly. Names of 
abstract and also of moral qualities, as — hardness, softness, 
prudence, envy, benevolence, have no plural. Several nouns 
in this class ending in y, when they do not express the 
quality or property in the abstract, but either its varieties or 
its manifestations, are used plurally. Thus we say, levities, 
affinities, gravities, &c. 



PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 49 

There may be different degrees and different exhibitions 
of the quality, but not a plurality. 

"Where displays of the mental quality are to be expressed, 
it is better in all cases to employ a periphrasis. Thus, 
instead of using, with Hume, the plural, insolences, the ex- 
pression, acts of insolence, would be preferable." 

Proper names admit the plural form when they are used 
to denote classes, or the names of families, as the Caesars, 
the Scipios, the Smiths, the Townsends, the Howards. In 
this sense the proper name ceases, strictly speaking, to be a 
definitive, and hence the necessity for surnames. 

Nouns from the Hebrew, Greek, Latin, French, and other 
languages, retain their original plurals, as — cherub, cherubim, 
phenomenon, phenomena, crisis, crises, beau, beaux. 

Some nouns are entirely anomalous, as — die, dice, penny, 
pence. Dice is commonly used both for the singular and 
the plural, and may be considered as belonging to the next 
class of nouns. Even our best writers occasionally disre- 
gard this useless anomaly. " When a dice,' 1 says Campbell, 
" is thrown out of the hand, we know its gravity will make 
it fall, and that its cubical figure will cause but one side to 
face upwards. This we know from experience ; but there is 
no principle which can lead me to conclude that one side 
rather than another will be turned up, unless the die be 
falsely loaded for the purpose of cheating." 

Penny makes pennies when distinct coins are spoken of, 
and pence when their value is denoted in computation. 

The last exception, or, to speak more correctly, anomaly, 
is, that some words are used alike in both numbers, as — deer, 
sheep, swine. 

Writers not having precise ideas to attach to the terms, 
mathematics, metaphysics, politics, ethics, and some other 
plural nouns, use them indiscriminately, and this inattention 
to precision causes much inaccuracy in the grammatical 
structure of sentences. 

The word, means, is a striking instance of the respect paid 
to authority and popular usage, in opposition to the dictates 
of common sense and the fundamental principles of grammar. 
If the word, means, had been uniformly used by our best 
writers, as a noun singular, this would be no argument for 



50 PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 

continuing the practice ; for every time it is improperly 
applied, the thought and the term are at variance, and the mind 
is too often diverted from the subject of the sentence ; yet a 
teacher of language will say that it is idle and fastidious to 
propose a change : thus we are taught to continue an ac- 
knowledged inaccuracy, because classical writers have set us 
the example ; but for a writer of no ordinary abilities openly 
to sanction such abuses, is more mischievous than quoting a 
thousand authorities in favour of the abuse. The business 
of the grammarian is to point out the right road, and to leave 
to the choice of the reader to take the wrong if he thinks 
proper. Dr. Crombie concludes his remarks on this word 
with the following pertinent observations : — 

" As a general rule for the use of means, as either singular 
or plural, it might render the construction less vague, and 
the expression therefore less ambiguous, were we to employ 
it as singular when the mediation or instrumentality of one 
thing is implied, and as plural when two or more mediating 
causes are referred to." 

Ex. — " He was careful to observe what means were em- 
ployed by his adversaries to counteract his schemes. Here 
means is properly joined with a plural verb, several methods 
of counteraction being signified." 

" The king consented, and by this means all hope of suc- 
cess was lost. Here only one mediating circumstance is 
implied, and the noun is therefore used as singular." 

"While for the sake of perspicuity we offer this general 
rule, we cannot but remark that, though the term mean is 
at present, by general usage, confined to the expression of a 
middle between two extremes, we are inclined to concur with 
the learned Dr. Lowth, and to recommend a more extended 
use of the noun singular. A means is a form of expression 
which, though not wholly unsupported by analogy, is yet re- 
pugnant to the general idiom of our language, and seems 
so ill adapted to denote the operation of a single cause, that 
we should be pleased to see it dismissed from use. If we 
say, ' this was one of the means which he employed to effect 
his purpose/ analogy and metaphysical propriety concur in 
recommending a mean, or one mean, as preferable to a means. 
News, alms, riches, pains, have been used as either singular 



PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 51 

or plural, but we never say ' one of the news/ • one of the 
alms/ ' one of the riches/ ■ one of the pains/ as we say ' one 
of the means/ we may therefore be justified, notwithstanding 
the authority of general usage, in pronouncing "a means" a 
palpable anomaly/ 5 — Crombie. 

The word news is sometimes construed as a plural, but 
more generally as a singular noun. It would be more cor- 
rect, as well as useful, to consider this noun as singular 
when only one article of intelligence is communicated, and 
as plural when several new things are reported, as — "no 
news so bad as this at home /' " the news of the day engage 
the attention of the idle/' 

Dr. Crombie observes that a celebrated grammarian has 
pronounced the noun, pains, to be in all cases plural ; but, 
says Dr. Crombie, this assertion might be proved erroneous 
by numberless examples. Now, the examples given do not 
prove the assertion to be erroneous, for they only prove that 
the plural noun, pains, has been used as a singular, but the 
sentences quoted do not demonstrate the propriety of the 
preference. 

Pains mean repeated efforts (collectively considered) of the 
mind or body, but should in no case be applied to signify a 
single exertion of either. 

When the word pains is followed by a verb in the singular 
number, it is considered as a collective noun, the words 
amount, aggregate, or such other term, being understood as 
the nominative, as — the pains they had taken was very 
great, i. e. not great in number, but in the aggregate, col- 
lectively considered. 

A proof that pains is sometimes used as a collective noun, 
may be adduced from the use of much before the term. 

Ex. — Much pains has been bestowed upon the work. 

Nouns in the plural, used without an article to limit their 
signification, resemble nouns of multitude, and are similar 
to those anomalies which do not admit the distinction of 
number. 

Nouns of multitude depend for their signification chiefly 
on the idea in the mind of him who uses them. If the 
collective idea be dwelt on, and be the subject of the 
attribute, the noun is construed as singular, as — the mob 

e 2 



52 PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 

was large— the army has been defeated; but if the indi- 
viduals which compose a collective noun be referred to, then 
the noun is considered plural, as — the committee have 
agreed. It will be observed that collective nouns, used as 
plurals to denote the individuals which constitute such par- 
ticular associations, are generally employed figuratively, as — 
the House of Commons, for the members of that assembly. 



Case. 



Case denotes the relation the noun bears to the predicate, 
or the relation which one noun bears to another in a sen- 
tence, as — Dryden translated Virgil's poems ; in this 
sentence, Dryden is the nominative, Virgil's the possessive 
or genitive, and poems the objective case. 

In the analysis of every sentence there will be found some 
noun, pronoun, or phrase, equivalent to a noun, either ex- 
pressed or understood, which may be considered as the 
subject of the assertion, and to which "that which is asserted" 
pertains. This noun, or phrase, is the nominative case ; it 
governs the verb in number and person, and is thus dis- 
tinguishable from every other noun in the sentence, as — 
the horse draws the carriage. Here the act of drawing is 
attributed to the horse, and horse is therefore said to be in 
the nominative case. But there is another noun in the sen- 
tence connected with the nominative and its attribute ; it is 
the object acted upon by the nominative, but concerning 
which nothing is expressly affirmed. Carriage is therefore 
said to be in the objective case. 

But if carriage be taken as the principal noun, or subject 
of affirmation, it then becomes the nominative, or governing, 
case of the sentence, as —the carriage is drawn by the horse. 
Here the state or condition in which the carriage is placed 
by the horse, and not the act of drawing, is the predicate ; 
and this state or condition is attributed to the carriage ; the 
agent, therefore,, is connected to the predicate by a prepo- 
sition, and is said to be governed in the objective case. 

But the relations which subordinate nouns bear to each 
other in a sentence would, if denoted by change of termi- 



PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 53 

nation, give rise to an unlimited number of cases. In 
English this inconvenience is obviated, either by position or 
by the use of prepositions, which denote the several relations 
of nouns connected with the subject and its attribute. 

Dr. Darwin, speaking of the cases of Greek and Latin 
nouns, observes, that " When to the variation of the termi- 
nations of nouns in the singular number are added those 
equally numerous of the plural, and the great variety of 
these terminations correspondent to the three genders, it is 
evident that the prepositions of our own and modern lan- 
guages, instead of the changes of termination, add to the 
simplicity of these languages, and to the facility of acquiring 
them." 

The only case in English which admits of modification is 
that which denotes possession, and in which case the mo- 
dified noun is used as a definitive to some other noun, as — 
the people's rights; the king's prerogative. 

The sign of the genitive case was for a long time con- 
sidered to be an abbreviation of the pronoun his, as — " the 
man his duty;" "the scholar his task;" but modern gram- 
marians contend this cannot be correct, because, although 
we may say — the man his duty, we cannot, with equal pro- 
priety, say — the woman his duty. But these writers seem 
to overlook the true character of this sign. The possessive 
pronouns his, hers, represent the nouns, and the relation of 
property also; they are, therefore, signs of complex ideas. 
But when it is necessary to mention the name of an indivi- 
dual, represented by a possessive pronoun, the pronoun 
becomes redundant, and the relation of property is all that 
remains to be expressed. Hence the impropriety of the 
primitive mode of expression, — "for Christ his sake;" "■ the 
children their bread." This tautology appears to have been 
at first obviated by uniting the pronoun masculine to the 
noun, by which means the repetition of the notion of gender, 
number, and person, was prevented, and the abbreviation 
served simply to denote the relation of property or posses- 
sion. The present mode of distinguishing the genitive may 
be considered an abbreviation of the original termination. 

By the modification, therefore, of the adjective pronoun, 
it no longer conveys the notion of gender or number, and it 



54 PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 

is thus rendered capable of being affixed or added to any 
noun, simply to denote the relation of property or possession. 
We may further remark, that " the man's duty," and the 
duty of the man, are equivalent expressions, yet no one 
expects the preposition of, which is a substitute for the sign's, 
should convey the notion of sex, or agree in gender, with 
the noun to which it belongs. It may also be observed that 
the pronoun his was formerly used before neuter nouns, and 
this strongly confirms the opinion once entertained of this 
abbreviation. 

There is yet another case distinct from the nominative, at 
least as regards its power of governing the verb : — this is the 
vocative case; being, in its nature, interjectional, it simply 
names the object addressed, as — " sir;" '* men and brethren ;" 
"my lord;" "madam." 

Ex. — "Awake, awake, put on thy strength, Zion, put 
on thy beautiful garments, O Jerusalem." 

Grammarians, indeed, say, that the verb agrees with these 
vocatives in number and person; but where there is no 
government there can be no concord; besides, the verb in the 
imperative mood (awake) is, in fact, the object commanded, 
and not an attribute predicated of Zion, — " I command thee 
(O Zion) to awake." 

Ex. — " My Lord, — your lordship may be surprised at the 
liberty I take in writing to you." — Pope. 

In this example, " my lord," and " your lordship," mean 
the same person, but the latter is in the nominative, or 
governing case, and the verb and pronoun agree with it. 
The former is in the vocative, and has no power in regulating 
the construction of the sentence. These cases are, therefore, 
essentially different; for, "my lord," taken as the nomina- 
tive, would imply a person spoken of, and not a person 
spoken to, and the verb and pronoun must then agree with 
it in the third person. 

The nominative or governing cases of the first and second 
persons are always pronouns, and when nouns are used with 
these, they are said to be in apposition; but these nouns do 
not govern the verb. 

Ex. — " Now, I, Paul, myself, beseech you." Here the 
verb agrees with the pronoun /, though "Paul" and "myself" 
represent the same person as the nominative. 



PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 55 

SYNTAX OF NOUNS. 
Concord and Government. 

Concord and Government are so closely connected 
with the syntax of nouns, that the distinction between 
these terms may be most conveniently noticed in this 
chapter. 

Government is that power which one word has over 
another, to determine its gender, number, person, case, or 
mode. The word that yields to this power is said to agree 
with the word that governs it, and this agreement is called 

CONCORD. 

Rule 1. Two or more nouns, denoting the same indi- 
vidual, are in the same case, — David, son of Jesse, king of 
Israel; Hume, the historian; Johnsons, the Bookseller s. 

In these examples the additional nouns express or explain 
the principal nouns more fully, and are said to be in apposi- 
tion to those nouns. 

In the last example the sign of the genitive may be 
properly omitted after the second noun, as that term is 
explanatory, and serves as an adjective to its noun in 
apposition, as — Johnson's, the bookseller. 

Rule 2. A noun in the nominative case governs the 
verb ; that is, the nominative requires the verb to agree with 
it in number and person, as — the storm is past; the sun 
shines ; the husbandmen return. Here the verbs — is, shines, 
return, are in the same number and person as their several 
nominatives. 

The place of the nominative is before the verb. The word 
that governs maybe discovered by asking, who? or what? 
with the verb and its attribute, as — What is past? — the 
storm. What shines? — the sun. Who return? — the hus- 
bandmen. The words that answer to the questions are the 
nominatives to the verbs. 

This rule is violated in such examples as these, — " I likes," 
"Thou loves," "he need," "you was." "In reference to 
this last example," says Dr. Crombie, " the reader should 
observe that you is plural, whether it relate to only one 
individual or to more, and ought, therefore, to be joined with 



56 PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 

a plural verb." As we do not admit the force and conclu- 
siveness of Dr. Crombie's argument, we shall risque a few 
remarks on the subject of this troublesome anomaly. 

It may be observed, then, that " you was" might indeed 
be called a solecism, if the pronoun did not serve for both 
numbers ; but in this case the pronoun is analogous to the 
substantives swine, deer, sheep; and when the pronoun 
denotes an individual, and the verb is in the singular, it is 
not a solecism to say "you was." But, "you were" is a. 
solecism when it is applied to a single object, because the 
verb is said to be changed to the plural, to agree with its 
nominative; but the nominative is singular, and by this 
change also the necessary distinction between a single and a 
plural subject is destroyed. It is a weak and fallacious argu- 
ment in support of this anomaly to say, that if we use the 
pronoun " you" as singular, we must use the second person 
of the verb "wast." The change in the verb to denote the 
first and second person is unnecessary, when appropriate 
pronouns are employed, and it can be considered correct 
only when the original pronoun is used. This agreement, 
from long association, may be thought necessary; but when 
the pronoun is alike in both numbers, a different form of 
the verb is requisite, to distinguish the singular from the 
plural. To produce one exception, to show the propriety of 
another, is no proof of the correctness of either. No sub- 
stitute but "you are" has been offered for " thou art." But 
this is not the case with " thou wast." Here there is a 
choice, and the question is which is the best grammar? 

Now, when any particular form of expression becomes 
obsolete, the people are at liberty to choose any equivalent 
phrase or term for the one which has for some cause been 
set aside. Where usage differs, the minds of thinking men 
generally determine the preference, and, by adopting that 
mode of expression which is most in unison with the ideas 
intended to be represented, establish, by their authority, the 
correct phraseology. It is this sense of propriety, in reflect- 
ing minds, that preserves the grammar of a language; and it 
is this sense of propriety that at first suggested "you was," 
as a substitute for the formal expression, "thou wast;" and 
which substitute would be now universally employed by 



PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 57 

writers, if it were not for the constraint the mind imposes 
on itself, in order to submit to fashion, supported by the 
arbitrary law of the grammarian. For the truth of this last 
assertion we appeal to the experience of the reader. 

Rule 3. An infinitive mood is sometimes the nomina- 
tive to the verb, as — "to promise is easy, to perform and to 
satisfy are often difficult." 

Rule 4, A phrase or part of a sentence may be the 
nominative to the verb, as — 

"To be ever active in laudable pursuits, is the distinguishing 
characteristic of a man of merit." 

"As far as regards his interest, he will be sufficiently care- 
ful not to offend." That is, as far as it, or as far as offending, 
regards his interest, he will be sufficiently careful not to offend. 

As far as is an adverbial phrase, therefore as cannot, as 
Dr. Crombie and other grammarians suppose, be intended 
to supply the place of a nominative. The derivation which 
refers the reader for the meaning of as to the pronoun it, 
that, or which, is worse than useless, for in no instance does 
as now serve as a pronoun. 

Rule 5. A noun of multitude governs the verb in the 
singular or in the plural, according as the notion of unity or 
plurality is suggested by the attribute. When the noun re- 
presents an object formed by the union of several individuals, 
and the attribute refers to that individual as a whole, the 
verb will be singular, as — a committee is appointed; the 
parliament is dissolved. But when the individuals are 
referred to separately, the noun governs the verb in the plural, 
as — the committee are deliberating. The verb, therefore, 
shews whether the thing or the persons are referred to. It 
is often much better to use a periphrasis when the individuals 
composing a noun of multitude are the subject of the verb, 
as — the members of the committee are deliberating. 

This rule affords another instance of the insufficiency of 
usage as the standard of propriety. Here the grammarian is 
compelled to admit, that the mind must decide which form 
of expression ought to have the preference. The verb is to 
agree with the noun of multitude according to the sense. 

Ex. — The assembly which was composed of honourable 
men rejected the petition. 



58 PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 

Ex. — The assembly who rejected the petition were honour- 
able men. In the first example the verb agrees with the 
neuter noun, assembly. In the last example the verb agrees 
with the noun men or members who composed the assembly. 
It would not be correct to say "the assembly who rejected 
the petition were composed of honourable men." Because 
the assembly, and not individuals who composed it, is the 
subject of the predicate. The assembly which rejected the 
petition was composed of honourable men. 

Rule 6. One noun governs another in the genitive when 
possession or property is intended to be expressed, as — the 
miser's gold; the King's ministers. 

The governing noun is either the nominative or objective 
of the verb, and the name of the possessor is used as a defini- 
tive, serving, in this respect, as an adjective to the principal 
noun. The nouns thus employed form a complex term, and 
denote an individual possessed by the definitive noun ; and, in 
this respect, the genitive differs from the common adjective; 
for qualities are possessed by or belong to the nouns, which 
they assist to define. So the quality, whiteness, is said to 
belong to snow, but the definitive, miser's, does not belong 
to gold, but that substance is particularised as being the pro- 
perty of the miser. Still the noun, miser's, is used adjectively, 
and does not represent the object as a distinct individual. 

And this is the reason why little explanatory circumstances 
are particularly awkward between a genitive case and the word 
which usually follows it, as — she began to extol the farmer's, 
as she called him, excellent understanding. It ought to be, 
"the excellent understanding of the farmer, as she called him." 

When neither possession nor property is implied, we say 
horse-shoe, dog-collar, &c; but when the idea of pertaining 
to is added to the noun, the possessive case is employed, 
as — the horse's shoe, the dog's collar. 

Yet where ambiguity cannot arise, reference is sometimes 
made to the genitive, as representing the noun itself; but in 
this case the sign of the genitive is generally exchanged for 
the preposition of,, which connects the subordinate noun. 

Ex. — "They flew to arms, attacked the house of Northum- 
berland, and put him to death." Here the pronoun him does 
not, of course, refer to the " house of Northumberland," which 



PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 59 

was the object of the preceding clause, but to the definite 
noun, divested of its characteristic as an adjective, and con- 
sidered as the name of a distinct individual. But Northum- 
berland's House, and "the house of Northumberland," denote 
the same object, and neither can, with propriety, be referred 
to as the object represented by the pronoun (him). By 
employing the preposition, however, the mind more readily 
divests itself of the subordinate character of the noun, and 
ambiguity does not so frequently occur. But in some cases 
even this contrivance will not sufficiently conceal the impro- 
priety. 

Ex. — The reader of Caramuel {who, together with Cam- 
penella, may be found in the Bodleian Library,) will not be dis- 
appointed in him, but most egregiously by him," — H. Tooke. 

The relative (who) refers to " Caramuel," and not to 
"the reader of Caramuel;" but the latter is the noun first 
suggested to the reader. 

The following sentence, though pronounced by Mr. Cobbett 
as ungrammatical, is strictly correct: — 

"This determination led me to Metissa, the daughter of 
Chrysophilus, who was, at least, without deformity." — 
Johnson. 

The relative refers to Metissa, who is the only person 
mentioned in the sentence; the name of Chrysophilus is 
used as a definitive to the appellative noun (daughter), and 
forms a part of the complex term, used in apposition with 
Metissa. 

" When the noun," says Mr. Cobbett, " which is in the 
possessive case, is expressed by a circumlocution, that is to 
say, by many words, in lieu of one, the sign of the possessive 
case is joined to the last word, as — ' John, the old farmer's 
wife;' 'Oliver, the spy's evidence.' It is, however, much 
better to say, 'the wife of John the old farmer;' 'the evi- 
dence of Oliver the spy.'" 

But Mr. Cobbett has not shown why it is much better to 
say — the wife of John, the old farmer; nor did he seem 
aware that his examples are complete nonsense. For how 
can John be the old farmer's wife, or how can Oliver be his 
own testimony. If Mr. Cobbett had said, Joan the old 
farmer's wife, his readers would have understood him. 



60 PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 

The circumlocution of which Mr. Cobbett speaks, is " the 
old farmer/' used in apposition with John, to limit that 
proper name; but this explanatory cognomen does not neces- 
sarily require the sign of the genitive, unless it be placed 
before the principal noun; but John is expressly intended as 
a definitive to wife, and the sign of the possessive case is 
indispensable, as — "John's, the old farmer's, wife; or, to avoid 
the repetition of the genitive — "the wife of John the old 
farmer." By this last arrangement the noun in apposition 
is governed only by John, and is not subject to the govern- 
ment of the principle noun, being thus properly confined to 
the purpose for which it was intended. 

If Mr. Cobbett, in copying Dr. Lowth's remark, had 
quoted the doctor's example also, he would not have been 
chargeable with the blunder he has committed. 

" When the thing to which another is said to belong is 
expressed by a circumlocution, or by many terms, the sign of 
the possessive case is commonly added to the last term, as — 
" the king of Great Britain's soldiers." — Lowth. 

In this example " the king of Great Britain" is a complex 
term, to denote an individual, and the nouns king and 
Britain, which compose the term, are not in apposition ; the 
sign of the genitive cannot, therefore, belong to both sub- 
stantives. Thus, we cannot say, with propriety, "Solomon's, 
the son of David, king of Israel's Proverbs;" but " Solomon, 
the son of David, king of Israel's Proverbs ;" or, as in the 
original, "The Proverbs of Solomon, king of Israel." 

" When," says Dr. Crombie, " I say, neither life nor death 
shall separate us from the love of God, it may mean either 
the love which we owe to God, or the love which he bears 
to us; for God's love may denote either the relation which 
the affection bears to its subject, or that which it bears to 
its object. If the latter be the meaning intended, the 
ambiguity may he prevented, by saying — love to God." 

We do not think Dr. Crombie was required to exercise his 
own or his reader's patience, by striving to explain a phrase 
which ought to need no explanation; for if writers say one 
thing, and mean another— if they say God's love, and mean 
the creature's love, a grammarian is not bound to countenance 
their blunders; for "language should be not such as the 



PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 61 

reader may understand, if he will take the trouble to examine 
it carefully, but such as he cannot even without effort fail to 
comprehend." 

When no direct reference is made to property or posses - 
sion, the noun assumes the nature of an adjective, denoting 
a quality belonging to the subject, as — a summer-day, a 
horse-shoe, a dog-collar. 

" The English genitive," says Mr. Murray, " has often an 
unpleasant sound, so that we daily make more use of the 
particle of to express the same relation." The sound in this 
case is not unpleasant to the ear, but to the mind. The 
English genitive suggests the notion of property or posses- 
sion more vividly than the particle of, and hence the harsh- 
ness complained of by Mr. Murray. This writer has remarked, 
that "the preposition of, joined to a substantive, is not 
always equivalent to the possessive case. It is so only when 
the expression can be converted into the regular form of the 
possessive case. We can say — the reward of virtue, and 
virtue's reward ; but though it is proper to say— a crown of 
gold, we cannot convert the expression into the possessive 
case, and say — gold's crown." And the reason is clear, for, 
in this case, the noun, "gold," is used as an adjective, and the 
preposition serves merely to connect it with the noun. So 
we sometimes say — a man of activity, but cannot, with the 
least propriety, say — activity's man, because the preposition 
and the noun are equivalent to the adjective, active, and do 
not denote that "man" is the property of activity, but that 
" activity" is the property of the man; and this will, perhaps, 
explain the origin and distinct character of this class of 
adjectives. 

"When a single subject is expressed, as the common 
property of two or more persons, the last only takes the sign 
of the genitive, as — this is John, William, and Richard's 
house; that is — this is the house of John, William and 
Richard." 

"But when several subjects are implied, as severally belong- 
ing to various individuals, the names of the individuals are 
all expressed in the genitive case, as — these are John's, 
William's, and Richard's houses. In such examples as 
these, the use of the genitive involves an ambiguity, which it 



62 PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 

is sometimes difficult to prevent. " Instead of saying — 
John, William, and Richard's house, or John's, William's, or 
Richard's, house, I should prefer — a house belonging in com- 
mon, or severally, (as the meaning may be) to John, William, 
and Richard." 

The double genitive is, in general, improperly employed. 
In all cases it would be better to use another form of expres- 
sion : thus, instead of saying — " this is a picture of my 
friend's," it would be less ambiguous, and, therefore, more 
grammatical, to say — "this is a picture belonging to my 
friend." Instead of — " a discovery of Sir Isaac Newton's," 
it should be — " a discovery by Sir Isaac Newton, or made 
by Sir Isaac Newton." 

" As the double genitive involves an ellipsis, and implies 
part of a whole, or one of a plurality of subjects, I think the 
use of it should be avoided, unless in cases where this plu- 
rality may be implied : thus, we may say — ' a kinsman of 
the traitor's waited on him yesterday/ it being implied that 
the traitor had several or many kinsmen. The expression is 
equivalent to a kinsman of the traitor's kinsman. But if the 
subject possessed were singular, or the only one of the kind, 
I should recommend the use of the simple genitive : thus, if 
he had only one house, I should say — this is the house of 
the traitor, or this is the traitor's, and not this is a house of 
the traitor's." — Crombie. 

The possessive case is distinguished from the plural num- 
ber of nouns by an apostrophe, as — books, book's. When 
the noun ends in ss the apostrophe only -is employed, 
as — for goodness' sake ; also in the genitive plural, ending 
in s, as — the commons' vote; the peers' dissent; the s 
is occasionally omitted, for the sake of euphony, as — for 
conscience' sake. 

Rule 7- A noun governed by a verb, participle, or pre- 
position, is in the objective case, as — Judas betrayed Christ ; 
Peter, having denied Christ, went out and wept bitterly ; 
they led him unto Pilate. When the relation is denoted by 
the attribute and verb, the objective noun is distinguished 
from the nominative by its place in the sentence, as — the 
lion killed the man. The noun " man " being placed after 
the verb, distinguishes that noun from the nominative or 



PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 63 

subject, and shews the case or relation it bears to the attri- 
bute as its object. 

But enough has at present been said of the syntax of 
nouns, since the subject of concord and government must 
necessarily be referred to, when the construction of the re- 
maining parts of speech is examined, and more particularly 
that of the verb, to which this rule of syntax may be thought 
more properly to belong. 

"A noun," says Mr. Lewis, "may be distinguished by 
placing before it the words, I think of, or / think of a ; and 
though we cannot say, the good sobriety, yet we can say, / 
think of sobriety , without any violation of good sense. 



ILLUSTRATIONS OF NOUNS. 

On the importance of Grammar. 

"The structure of language is extremely artificial; and there 
are few sciences in which a deeper or more refined logic is 
employed than in grammar. It is apt to be slighted by su- 
perficial thinkers as belonging to those rudiments of knowledge 
which were inculcated upon us in our earliest youth. But 
what was then inculcated before we could comprehend its 
iwinciples, would abundantly repay our study in maturer 
years ; and to the ignorance of it must be attributed many 
of those fundamental defects which appear in writing." — 
Blair. 

Immortal gods, I crave no pelf, 
I pray for no man but myself; 
Grant I may never prove so fond 
To trust man on his oath or bond, 
Or a harlot for her weeping, 
Or a dog that seems a sleeping, 
Or a keeper with my freedom, 
Or my friends if I should need 'em. 

Shakespeare. Timon of Athens. 

"It is certainly as easy to be a scholar as a gamester, or 
many other characters, equally illiberal and low. The same 



64 PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 

application — the same quantity of habit will fit us for one 
as completely as for the other ; and as to those who tell us, 
with an air of seeming wisdom, that it is men and not books 
we must study to become knowing, this I have always 
remarked, from repeated experience, to be the common con- 
solation and language of dunces." — Harris. Hermes, book hi. 
chap. v. 



CHAPTER V. 



ADJECTIVES. 



"'The true genuine sense of a noun adjective will be fixed to consist in this, 
that it imports the general notion of pertaining to." — Wilkins. 

Adjectives represent certain qualities or attributes, and 
are the concrete names of modes treated of by logicians. 

" A mode is that which cannot subsist in and of itself, but 
is always esteemed as belonging to and subsisting by the help 
of some substance, which, for that reason, is called its sub- 
ject."* 

An adjective, therefore, expresses a quality as subsisting 
in a noun, and does not represent the quality as having a 
distinct or separate existence, — as, good, wise, solid, virtuous. 
But when these qualities are considered without reference to 
the subjects which possess them, the terms which represent 
those ideas are called abstract nouns, — as, goodness, wisdom, 
solidity, virtue. 

Dr. Crombie defines an adjective to be "that part of 
speech which denotes any substance or attribute, not by 
itself, but as conjoined with a subject, or pertaining to its 
character. This conjunction is generally marked by changing 
the termination of the simple name of the substantive or 
attribute, as — fool, foolish ; wax, waxen. Sometimes no 
change is made, and the simple name of the substantive or 
attribute is prefixed to the name of the subject, as — sea fowl, 
race horse, corn field. In writing these and similar expres- 
sions, the conjunction is sometimes marked by a hyphen, 
as — sea-fowl, river-fish, wine-vessel." From this it will be 

* Dr. Watts — Logic, part i. ch. ii. sec. 3. 
F 



66 PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 

seen that the juxta position of two nouns suggests that one 
denotes a quality of the other ; and hence the former, losing 
its own independent meaning, assumes the dependent cha- 
racter of an adjective. 

Mr. Tooke erred greatly when he affirmed that gold, brass, 
and silk, when conjoined with appellative nouns, were still 
the names of things, and denoted substances. Gold and 
brass, when not used adjectively, are the names of metals, 
and silk the name of that substance ; but when these appella- 
tives are used as adjectives, they denote the qualities only of 
those nouns to which they are joined. Mr. Tooke also asks 
whether golden, brazen, and silken, do not convey to the 
hearer's mind, and denote the same thing, as gold, brass, and 
silk. After amusing his reader for some time by trying to 
convince him that no difference exists between gold and 
golden, and . asserting that they are both substantives, he at 
length admits the fact that a noun with its attribute is a com- 
plex term, but he does not attempt to explain in what respect 
the noun and the attribute differ in their nature, or in the 
extent of their signification. 

Impressed with the notion that all words were nouns, or 
names of things, Mr. Tooke could perceive no difference 
between wood and wooden; he also affirms that " a perverse 
nature " and f a natural perversity " mean precisely the same 
thing. It may be maintained (notwithstanding the high au- 
thority of Mr. Tooke's name) that the adjectives perverse 
and natural denote species of different things — a species of 
disposition (for this is, we presume, what Mr. Tooke means 
by the vague expression — nature) and a species of perversity, 
namely, a natural perversity. 

Mr. Tooke was accustomed to confound his acquaintance 
by a subtilty of reasoning, and by a peculiar and confident 
manner in the delivering of his opinions, which frequently 
left his opponent nothing to say in reply to his arguments or 
assertions. This was, perhaps, done more for the sake of 
amusement than to gratify his vanity by a display of the 
acuteness of his intellectual powers. The same habit prevails 
in his treatise on language ; and since the publication of that 
work, few grammarians have ventured to dissent from any of 
his opinions : the consequence has been that his valuable 



PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 67 

discoveries have never been rendered so practically useful in 
the science of grammar as they might otherwise have been. 

•The manner in which substantives may be converted into 
adjectives has been thus shewn and exemplified by Mr. 
Harris : — " When we say, — the party of Pompey ; the style 
of Cicero ; the philosophy of Socrates, — in these cases the 
party, the style, and the philosophy, spoken of, receive a 
stamp and character from the persons whom they respect ; 
those persons, therefore, perform the part of attributes ; that 
is, stamp and characterise their respective subjects. Hence, 
then, they actually pass into attributes, and assume, as such, 
the form of adjectives ; and thus it is we say, — the Pompeian 
party ; the Ciceronian style ; and the Socratic philosophy. 
It is, in like manner, for a trumpet of brass, we say a brazen 
trumpet ; for a crown of gold, a golden crown, &c. Even 
pronominal substantives admit the like mutation ; thus, in- 
stead of saying, the book of me, of thee, and of him, we say, my 
book, thy book, and his book ; instead of saying, the country 
of us, of you, and of them, we say, our country, your country, 
their country, which words may be called so many pronominal 



" In English," says Mr. Tooke, " instead of adjectiving 
our own substantives, we have borrowed, in immense num- 
bers, adjectived signs from other languages, without borrowing 
the unadjectived signs of those same ideas, because our au- 
thors frequently found they had occasion for the former, but 
not for the latter ; and notwithstanding the nature of the 
language, or the nature of the very benefit they were receiving, 
they did not, as they might and should have done, improve 
their own language by the same contrivance within itself, but 
borrowed from other languages abbreviations ready made to 
their hands. Thus they have incorporated into English — 

FOR THE THE FOREIGN 

SUBSTANTIVE. ADJECTIVE. 

Child .... Infant, infantine 
Boy .... Puerile 

Man . .. .Virile, human, masculine, male 
Woman . .Female, feminine, effeminate 
Mind . . . .Mental, magnanimous, pusillanimous, unanimous 
&c, &c. &c, &c. 

f 2 



68 



PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 



In the copious list of these borrowed adjectives, given by 
Mr. Tooke, it will be found that they chiefly denote qualities 
derived from nouns which have no corresponding verbs in 
the language, and that the notions attached to them are de- 
rived immediately from the nouns. Will not this lead to 
the conclusion that substantive nouns are the roots of adjec- 
tives ? and also that the mind must form an abstract idea of 
every quality before it can join that quality to a noun ? 
Hence some grammarians have concluded that there is not 
any accident whatever which has not a grammatical substan- 
tive for its sign, when it is not attributed ; nor is there any 
substance whatever which may not have a grammatical ad- 
jective for its sign, when there is occasion to attribute it. 

Participial adjectives are derived from verbal nouns : they 
are distinguished from participles as pertaining to nouns, and 
as being the means by which such nouns are characterised 
and defined, as — " a flattering tongue," " a contented spirit." 
The adjectives here lose their power as participles, and indicate 
a person possessed of an habitual quality. Some adjectives, 
having this participial termination, are derived from substan- 
tives, and have no corresponding verbs in the language, as — 
a wretched being ; a winged insect ; an aged horse. Mr. 
Tooke, in his remarks on certain adjectives which he terms 
official mood passive adjectives, observes, that " the words 
of this sort which we have hitherto adopted are barely these 
— legend, reverend, dividend, prebend, memorandum. We can 
hardly be said to have adopted deodand, multiplicand, sub- 
trahend, and credenda ; i. e., which ought to be given to 
God ; which ought to be multiplied ; which ought to be 
subtracted ; which ought to be believed. The first of these, 
legend, which means ' that which ought to be read/ is, from 
the early misapplication of the term by impostors, now used 
by us as if it meant ' that which ought to be laughed at,' 
and so it is explained in our dictionaries. How soon 
reverend, i. e. which ought to be revered, will be in the 
same condition, though now with great propriety applied to 
our judges and clergy, will depend upon themselves. Divi- 
dend, that which ought to be divided, is perpetually abused, 
while each man calls the share of the dividend which he has 
received his dividend, though he means to keep it all him- 






PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 69 

self. Memorandum alone stands clear from abuse and free 
from danger, that which ought to be remembered." 

Numeral adjectives are such as denote number ; they are 
either cardinal, as — one, two, three ; or ordinal, as — first, 
second, third. 

The only modification which the adjective admits in 
English is to denote the degrees of a quality, as — white, 
whiter, whitest ; tall, taller, tallest. 

The degrees of comparison are three; — the positive, the 
comparative, and the superlative. 

" In all qualities susceptible of intension or remission, the 
number of degrees, from the lowest to the highest, may be 
accounted infinite. Hardness (for example), gravity, magni- 
tude, genius, wisdom, folly, are severally diversified by an 
infinitude of gradations, which it would elude the capacity of 
any language to discriminate : to denote these degrees is, 
therefore, utterly impracticable, as it is wholly unnecessary." 
— Crombie. 

The positive simply expresses the quality, as — white. 

The comparative degree denotes an increase of the quality, 
as — whiter. 

The superlative signifies the highest state of the quality, 
as — whitest. 

The comparative is formed by adding r, or er, to the posi- 
tive, as — long, longer ; tall, taller. 

The superlative is formed by adding st, or est, as — longest ; 
tallest. 

Some adjectives are formed irregularly, as — good, better, 
best; bad, worse, worst. These adjectives are generally of 
frequent occurrence, and this may partly account for their 
irregularity : like the substantive verb, they probably origi- 
nate from different roots. 

" Terminational comparison, as well as that denoted by 
more and most, does not, as some of our grammarians teach, 
increase or diminish the signification ; it always increases it. 
In shorter and shortest, the property of shortness is always 
increased, not made less ; the property of a thing is dimi- 
nished by less or least." — Grant. 

The termination ish denotes a degree of a quality less than 
that denoted by the positive, as — bluish. 

The terminations which mark the degrees of comparison 



70 PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 

are equivalent to the adverbs more and most, as — wiser, 
more wise ; wisest, most wise. 

Words of one, and sometimes of two, syllables are com- 
pared by using the terminations. Words of two, and more 
than two syllables, by the adverbs more and most, as — 
correct, more correct, most correct ; fortunate, more fortu- 
nate, most fortunate. 

Some adjectives, from the nature of the qualities they 
represent, will not admit degrees of comparison, as — eternal, 
infinite, universal ; such also as refer to figure, as — circular, 
square, triangular, straight; and many others which denote 
the highest or lowest possible degree of a quality, as — chief, 
supreme, perfect. 

There are some writers who question the propriety of ad- 
mitting three degrees of comparison ; but since the adjective 
is used to distinguish appellative nouns, the positive may be 
considered as denoting an indefinite degree* of a quality, 
compared with the abstract notion of that quality as it exists 
in the mind. A common standard of any quality may be 
supposed to be taken as appropriate to the individuals of a 
species : thus, mountains are high, contrasted with plains ; 
but compared with individuals of their own kind, those only 
are called high which exceed the mean height : thus, also, a 
man, compared with the ordinary stature of men, and found 
to exceed it, would be denominated a tall man ; but should 
two men, possessing this quality in different degrees, be com- 
pared, there would be a direct comparison of the quality as 
to its extent in reference to the common standard. For 
example — a man five feet ten inches is a tall man, and so 
also is a man six feet in height a tall man, but when the ex- 
hibitions of the quality in these two individuals are compared 
and referred to the ordinary stature, the disparity in the 
heights is determined, and the excess is denoted, by modi- 
fying the positive term, as — tall, taller ; but when more than 
two individuals, possessing the like quality in different 
degrees, are compared, the one which exceeds the rest is 

* The very nature of the adjective implies compai-ison ; for it is by com- 
paring one object with another that we are enabled to predicate the existence 
of qualities in nouns : thus, one man is rich, another tall, and a third 
valiant, compared with the wealth, stature, or valour, possessed by men in 
ffeneraL 



PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 71 

denominated the tallest, but if one should exceed the usual 
stature in an extraordinary degree, and the comparison be 
simply made between his and the ordinary height of men, 
then an appropriate adverb is employed to modify the adjec- 
tive, as — very tall, extremely tall, &c. This has been called, 
by some grammarians, the superlative of eminence ; we 
might as justly denominate "much taller" the comparative of 
eminence, and " rather tall " the positive of eminence * for 
what becomes of the superlative of eminence in such compari- 
sons as these — John is very tall, Harry is much taller, but 
Richard is the tallest. 

When nouns of different species are compared, there can 
be no precise standard to which the degrees of comparison 
can be referred ; thus — a lion is larger -than a mouse ; an 
elephant is larger than a lion, and is esteemed the most saga- 
cious of all animals ; where it may be observed that if there 
be a superlative of eminence, it is in those cases which ex- 
press the ne plus ultra of a quality. 

Mr. Lennie has assigned gender, number, and case, to 
adjectives, and would have the reader comprehend that sex, 
and case, and number, make part of the notion of qualities 
This supposed agreement between nouns and adjectives 
(which it is necessary to observe in the Latin and some 
other languages) is so contrary to common sense, and so 
totally inconsistent with the character of the English lan- 
guage, that it would be scarcely worthy of notice, if it were 
not to caution those who are desirous to understand the 
nature of speech to beware of such instructors. "Adjectives," 
Dr. Epps justly observes, "have no changes to point out 
genders, numbers, and cases. The reason of this is that ad- 
jectives are used to point out something particular in the 
person, place, or -thing, of which the noun is the name, not 
in the gender, number, or case, which are pointed out by 
changes of the noun itself. Thus — wise man, wise woman ; 
here the nouns change, but the adjectives do not, because 
the particular thing, wisdom, is common not only to the 
man, but to the woman." The only approximation to agree- 
ment in number and gender is either in the adjective 
pronouns this, that, and other, or in words derived from appel- 
latives, appropriated to a particular sex, as — this book, these 



72 PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 

books ; a sluttish woman, a slovenly man. But the quality 
denoted by the adjectives, sluttish and slovenly, is the same 
quality, whether ascribed to the male or to the female. 



Syntax of Adjectives. 

Rule I. Every word used as an adjective belongs to 
some noun, either expressed or understood. 

Ex. " Few think these mad, for most, like these, 

Are sick and troubled with the same disease." 

The noun to which an adjective belongs may be ascer- 
tained by asking the question, who or what, with the adjec- 
tive, as — few what? — persons; these what? — these persons 
or people, &c. 

Rule II. Adjectives are generally put before the nouns 
they qualify. 

Ex. — A. faithful friend is tried in adverse fortune. 

Ex. — "The Bible, for the size of it, is the most accurate 
grammatical composition that we have in the English lan- 
guage." — Murray. 

Ex. — " My stronger guilt defeats my strong intent." — 
Shakspeare. 

Rule III. Adjectives are sometimes placed after the 
nouns to which they belong, either for the sake of variety or 
emphasis, or to admit, more conveniently, some modifying 
term or phrase. They also follow nouns when, by ellipsis, 
the relative and verb are omitted. 

Ex. " The present time's so sick, 

That present medicine must be ministered, 
Or overthrow, incurable, ensues." 

King John, act v. sc. 1. 

Ex. — "A man wise in his own conceit, i.e. who is wise in 
his own conceit." 

Rule IV. Double comparatives, or double superlatives, 
are improper; and- although they were formerly admitted 
and sanctioned by reputable writers, they were nevertheless 
as ungrammatical then as they are justly pronounced to be 
so now. 



PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 73 

Ex.—" Your wisdom should show itself more richer." — 
Shakespeare. 

Most, whether it precedes or follows the adjective, is a 
sign of the superlative, in the same manner as more is a sign 
of the comparative, degree, as — outmost, furthermore, fur- 
thermost. 

The definitive article cannot be correctly used before 
superlatives, unless it be to denote what, in the Latin, is 
expressed by quam maxime, or the highest possible degree of 
a quality. 

Ex. — "This distinction is the most precise and the most 
worthy of attention." — Crombie. 

There cannot, strictly speaking, be more than one thing 
most precise, or most worthy, of the same kind; still the 
article may be used for the sake of emphasis. 

Rule V. Adjectives, which do not admit either increase 
or diminution, cannot be compared, as — universal, infinite, 
chief. 

Ex. — ■ ' As no one has exercised the powers of speech with 
juster and more universal applause than youself." — Harris. 

It should be "more general applause." 

Ex. — " Being connected with that politer literature." — 
Harris. 

There can be no degrees of politeness in polite literature; 
the comparative is affectedly employed, instead of the posi- 
tive, and the sentence is thus rendered ungrammatical. It 
should be "being connected with polite literature." The 
affectation noticed in this last example is a very common 
refinement among polite writers. 

Ex. — "This deserves most particular notice." — Brenan. 

The adverb, most, in this example, is redundant. 

Ex. — " Our chief est courtier, cousin, and our son." — 
Shakspeare. 

Ex. — " With whom it was his chief est boast to say he 
had been acquainted." — Sir W. Scott. 

Chief is equivalent to highest, and does not admit the 
inflections of comparison: — " It was his chief boast to say 
he had been acquainted. 

Rule VI. Adjectives are often improperly used for 
adverbs, as — scarce ever, exceeding great, exceeding strong; 



74 PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 

excessive good, extreme dear, excellent well; instead of — 
scarcely ever, exceedingly great, &c. 

Ex.—" The passions are the natural spurs to volition or 
action, and so need only to be right directed." — Campbell. 

It should be rightly directed, i.e. properly directed. 

Dr. Crombie, after having vindicated, or at least palliated, 
this grammatical inaccuracy, admits — that exceedingly strong, 
exceedingly good, are the preferable phraseologies. It is 
thus that grammarians assist to perpetuate error, and to 
increase the difficulties of a science, which it is their duty to 
simplify and defend against the corruptions of popular usage. 
The only instances in which the adjective form is to be pre- 
ferred to the adverbial, is when the word to which the adverb 
belongs ends in the same syllable, as — exceedingly lovely ; 
or when an adjective, ending in hj, is used as an adverb, as — 
wily, wilily; but even in these cases the inaccuracy may 
generally be avoided by using another adverb, or an equiva- 
lent phrase, as — "very lovely," "in a crafty manner." 

There is another case in which an adjective appears to be 
improperly used for an adverb. 

Ex. — " Etymology is that part of grammar by which we 
are instructed relative to the origin, kinds, and properties, of 
words." — Lewis. 

Relative is an adjective, and cannot properly qualify the 
verb, The phrase, " relative to," might have been obviated 
by using the participial preposition, concerning, — " by which 
we are instructed concerning the origin kinds and properties 
of words." 

The comparative is used when only two things are com- 
pared. The superlative, when one thing, or an aggregate 
number of things, are compared with the class to which they 
belong, or to which we refer them. 

Ex. — "Mad as the sea and wind, when both contend 
which is the mightier." 

Ex. — Socrates was the wisest of the Athenians. 

Ex. — Methuselah was the oldest man ; Solomon was the 
wisest. 

Rule VII. The comparative of adjectives is followed by 
than when opposition is signified, and by of when selection is 
implied. 



PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 75 

Ex. — Sorrow is better than laughter ; Heraclitus was 
therefore the wiser of the two philosophers. 

The simplicity and excellence of the English language is 
obvious in the etymology and syntax of its adjectives. 

" In the Latin and Greek languages," observes Dr. Darwin, 
" adjectives possess a great variety of terminations. Some 
of these, when declined through all their ca3es, and genders, 
and numbers, in their positive, comparative, and superlative 
degrees, enumerate fifty or sixty terminations ; all which, 
to one who wishes to learn those languages, are so many 
new words, and add much to the difficulty of acquiring them." 

An adjective may be known by its admitting or requiring 
an appropriate substantive with it, to complete the con- 
struction, as — few are happy, i.e. few persons. 



Illustrations of Adjectives. 

THE IMMATERIALITY OF THE GLOBE. 

These, our actors, 
As I foretold you, were all spirits, and 
Are melted into air, — into thin air, — 
And like the baseless fahrick of this vision, 
The cloud-capped towers, the gorgeous palaces, 
The solemn temples, the great globe itself, 
Yea all which it inherit, shall dissolve, 
And like this unsubstantial pageant, faded, 
Leave not a rack behind. 

Tempest, act IV. 

Consequences of the want of perspicuity in a writer. 

If we are obliged to follow a writer with much care, to pause 
and to read over his sentences a second time, in order to com- 
prehend them fully, he will never please us long. Mankind 
are too indolent to relish much labour. They may pretend to 
admire the authors depth, after they have discovered his 
meaning ; but they will seldom be inclined to take up his 
work a second time." — Blair. 

In these illustrations the words printed in italic are adjec- 
tives, and they pertain to some noun, either expressed or 
understood ; Thus, baseless denotes a quality belonging to 



76 PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 

fabric ; cloud-capped, that which pertains to or distinguishes 
towers. The adjective all, requires the noun ". things" to com 
plete the subject, and the word long, limits the signification of 
the noun understood, as — " a long time/' 

The force and beauty of the adjectives, baseless and cloud- 
capped, in the illustration from Shakespeare, has been noticed 
by Mr Brenan in his chapter on synonymous words. We 
quote his suggestion and remark, for the consideration of 
those who are too fond of latinized English, and we would 
remind the unpractised writer, that if the Latin derivatives 
are to be preferred for their sound, the English synonyms 
are generally superior in their force of signification. 

"Should any foolish pedant annoy you about the superior 
beauties of the classical languages, desire him to translate into 
Latin or Greek "cloud-capped towers" or " baseless fabric." 
He may with many words give the sense in a round about way, 
but as to energy and conciseness, they are confined to the 
English." — Brenan, Composition and Punctuation, chap. xi. 
p. 207. 



CHAPTER VI. 



THE PRONOUN. 



The personal pronouns give information which no other words* are capable 
of conveying ; but the other pronouns may, in general, have their place 
supplied by the words or clause3 to which they relate." — M'Culloch. 



There are no words that have a juster claim to originality 
and indispensable use in language than personal pronouns. 
Even those who deny their necessity are compelled to admit 
their utility. "The rude savage/' says Dr. Crombie, "could 
not converse with his fellow without some sign to discriminate 
the person speaking from the person addressed ; and if 
visible signs (as is probable) would be first adopted we may 
reasonably presume, on several grounds, that these would 
soon give place to audible expressions." Notwithstanding 
this opinion, Dr. Crombie insists that nouns and verbs are 
the only indispensable parts of speech. The maxim — alterum 
est quod loquimur, alterum de quo loquimur, may indeed be 
serviceable in a treatise on logic, as distinguishing the subject 
from the predicate, but it cannot apply to the component 
parts of speech. It tends only to perplex those who wish 
to understand the cause and origin of the different kinds 
of words. 

A pronoun is a word used for a noun, to avoid the too 
frequent repetition of the same word. 

Pronouns are either personal or definitive. 

A personal pronoun denotes an individual, and necessarily 
includes the proper name or definitive by which that par- 

* Yet this writer asserts that the noun and verb are the only indispensable 
parts of speech. 



78 PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 

ticular object is distinguished from others comprehended 
under the general term. The pronoun, therefore, does not 
supply the place of any noun, neither does it refer to the 
proper name only, but it refers to both ; — to the proper 
name, or other definitive, as denoting the individual, and to 
the general term, as denoting the class to which the indivi- 
dual belongs. The pronoun / denotes the person speaking, 
thou the person spoken to, and the pronouns he, she, and 
it, the person or object spoken of. Pronouns, as Mr. Lewis 
has observed, represent not only that single word which, in 
every specific description, is called a noun ; but they repre- 
sent, also, the adjectives, and all the adjectives and definitives 
which are connected with such noun ; thus, in the example, 
" a holy man is called a saint," and he is an object of religi- 
ous veneration ; the word he is used instead not only 
of man, or a man, but instead of a holy man. And if it 
were necessary to use the noun instead of the pronoun we 
should likewise be obliged to use also the definitive and the 
adjective. 

A definitive pronoun is a substitute for a definitive, and 
requires an appellative noun to be added to complete its 
signification, as — his, my, her, its, &c. These, by a slight 
modification, are made to include both the definitive and 
general term, as — mine, thine, ours, yours, theirs, &c. 

"That there is a near relation," says Mr. Harris, "between 
pronouns and articles the old grammarians have all acknow- 
ledged, and some words it has been doubtful to which class 
to refer. The best rule to distinguish them is this, — the 
genuine pronoun always stands by itself, assuming the power 
of a noun, and supplying its place. The genuine article never 
stands by itself, but appears at all times associated to some- 
thing else, requiring a noun for its support, as much as 
attributes and adjectives." 

After discriminating so clearly the properties of a definitive 
and a pronoun, it is rather surprising Mr. Harris did not 
arrive at the source whence the distinction originated, and 
that he did not ascribe to the difference of nouns the cause 
of the difference existing in their substitutes. 

Though pronouns are commonly considered as "words 
used instead of nouns, to avoid the repetition of the same 



PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 79 

word/' yet it is evident that the pronouns / and thou imply 
something more than the nouns which they represent ; for if 
the nouns were substituted, the subjects would be of the 
third person, and no longer represent the person speaking, or 
person spoken to, but the person spoken of, and the verb would 
agree with the nouns in the third person. 

Dr. Crombie has noticed this peculiarity, and his remarks 
are so much to the purpose that we need make no apology 
for laying them before the reader: — 

' ' I have said that pronouns are employed to prevent the 
tiresome repetition of names. It is not, however, to be hence 
inferred that even the repetition of the name would in all 
cases answer the same purpose, or denote the subject with the 
same precision as the pronoun. For as there is hardly any 
name, strictly speaking, proper or peculiar to one individual, 
the employment of a name belonging to more persons than 
one would not so clearly specify or individuate the object as 
the appropriate pronoun. Hence it would be often necessary 
to subjoin to the name some distinctive circumstances, to 
discriminate the person intended from others of that name, 
or the speaker would be obliged to point to the individual, if 
he happened to be present. Nay, though the person or subject 
designed might be thus sufficiently ascertained, it is easy to 
see that the phraseology would have nothing of that simpli- 
city and energy which accompany the pronoun. If, instead 
of saying ' I am the God/ we should say, ' the Lord is the 
God/ or instead of ' thou art the man/ — 'David is the man/ 
the energy of expression would be entirely destroyed. If 
any person speaking of himself, should distinguish himself 
from others of the same name, by subjoining the necessary 
discriminating circumstances, so as to leave no doubt in the 
mind of the hearer, it is obvious that this phraseology would 
not only be inelegant, but also feeble and unimpressive. To 
be convinced of the truth of this observation it is only 
necessary to compare the exanimate, stiff, and frequently 
obscure diction of a common card, with the freedom perspi- 
cuity and vivacity of a letter." 

Not only the utility, but the necessity, of pronouns, or 
some equivalent signs, is evident from the fact that the name 
of the speaker or the name of the person addressed may be 



80 PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE- 

unknown ; and so also may be the name of the person or thing 
spoken of, as — when it is asked, who or what is it? The pro* 
noun it stands in the place of the name of the unknown or 
undefined person or object ; and it may be here remarked, 
that the neuter pronoun it, when thus applied to persons, is 
more correct than he or she, because the word person 
is intended, and the sex being unknown, the use of the other 
pronouns would be absurd. 

The personal pronouns are, /, thou, he, she, it* and their 
plurals we, ye, or you, they. The pronouns thou and ye are 
nearly obsolete, the pronoun you supplying the place of 
singular and plural, nominative and accusative. 

" You, formerly was confined to the objective case, and ye 
exclusively used for the nominative." — Murray. 

The pronouns /, thou, he, she, we, and they, are changed 
when they represent a noun in the objective case, as — me, 
thee, him, her, and them. 

The possessive pronouns are definitives and do not make 
sense of themselves, but require to be joined to a noun to 
complete the signification. They are my, thy, his, her, (the 
same as the objective,) its, our, your, their. 

Those writers who give mine, thine, hers, ours, yours, and 
theirs, as the possessive cases of their several pronouns, 
appear to overlook the extent of signification applied to these 
modifications of the corresponding definitives ; for the pro- 
nouns mine, thine, hers, include not only the possessive noun, 
but the subject noun also, as — this book is mine, i. e. my 
book ; here the pronoun my stands in the place of the 
owner's name, and is the true possessive pronoun, or word 
put in the place of a noun in the possessive case. The pro- 
nouns my, thy, &c, do not, as Dr. Crombie affirms, express 
the subject, but only that part of the subject which distin- 
guishes an individual from others of its kind, the name of 
the possessor, or a pronoun in the same case, being used as 
a definitive to the subject noun, as— my book, thy book, her 

* The pronoun it is generally used for irrational or inanimate objects, and 
some grammarians scruple to class it among the personal pronouns, but since 
this pronoun is sometimes employed to represent persons as well as things, 
it may, without much impropriety, be permitted to retain its place among 
personal pronouns. 



PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 81 

book, their book. It is true the words mine, thine, hers, 
theirs, sound better in a grammar when ranged with the pro- 
nouns / and me, thou and thee, she and her, they and them, 
because they seem to correspond with the definition of a 
pronoun ; but it should be remembered that a noun in the 
possessive case does not make sense of itself, but requires to be 
joined to another word, as — this is the king's ; whereas mine, 
thine, hers, theirs, include the subject and its definitive, and 
may properly be denominated pronouns, for they stand for 
individuals, and the names of the individuals the nouns belong 
to also. 

Mr. Cobbett says the nouns denoted by the pronouns ours, 
yours, theirs, &c, are understood (subauditur) , and he misleads 
his reader by adducing this illustration — " this is hers, that 
is to say, her property, her hat, or whatever else." 

In the pronoun hers, thesubject noun is not only understood, 
but it is included in the same manner as adjectives and defi- 
nitives are included in the nominative and objective cases of 
personal pronouns ; but in the pronoun her, the subject 
noun, when omitted, must be supplied by the mind to com- 
plete the sense. The first abbreviation (hers) is employed 
to diminish the force of signification, the last (her, without 
its noun) for the sake of dispatch. 

" The notion," says Mr. M'Cullock, " that pronouns have 
been invented to prevent the too frequent iteration of nouns, 
seems erroneous. Even supposing the pronoun fit to stand 
as the representative of the noun in every case (which it ob- 
viously is not), it must be expressed as often as the noun of 
which it is the representative : and in what respect is the 
repetition of one class of words preferable to the repetition 
of another ?" 

This question can be satisfactorily answered only by re- 
ferring to that leading principle in the formation of language 

THAT WORDS SHOULD EXPRESS IDEAS AS NEARLY AS 

POSSIBLE WITH THE SAME FORCE, AND IN THE SAME 
MANNER OF SIGNIFICATION, AS THOSE IDEAS HAVE BEEN 

conceived in the mind. Hence the origin of the different 
sorts of words. 

For the purpose of denoting emphatically the relation of 
possession or property, the word own is frequently joined to 

G 



82 PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 

the possessive cases of pronouns, as — my own, their own ; 
and to mark the person with emphasis, the pronouns are 
compounded with self, as — myself, himself, yourselves, them- 
selves. These pronouns also often represent that abstract 
notion which man forms of himself when he is the subject of 
his own thoughts, or when the mind contemplates its own 
operations. In the following example the pronoun yourself 
is used for both these purposes : — 

" Nay, we speak it with sorrow, even you yourself, whom we 
should least suspect of all mankind, can hardly acquit yourself 
of having given us some cause of complaint." — Spectator. 

So also a man is said to accuse himself — he being the 
accuser, and himself the culprit. But let not the reader 
imagine that we wish to defend the opinion that man is 
essentially composed of two distinct beings, or that such a 
chimera as an abstract man actually exists ; the proofs of 
these hypotheses must be left to metaphysicians : all that 
we aim at is to show that a man sometimes finds it conve- 
nient and agreeable to speak of himself and that language 
furnishes the means by which he may be enabled to do so. 

Pronouns of the third person singular admit the distinction 
of gender, but rather for convenience than from necessity ; 
for by means of this distinction a greater latitude is given to 
the use of the several pronouns. We concur with Dr. 
Crombie in his opinion on this point, and shall close our 
observations on the personal pronouns by quoting the words 
of that writer, in preference to giving the substance of his 
remarks as our own ; — 

" The pronouns of the first and second persons are either 
masculine or feminine ; the reason is, says Mr. Harris, 
because the sex of the speaker and of the person addressed 
is generally obvious. This explanation, which has been 
adopted by most grammarians, appears to me unsatisfactory 
and erroneous. Others have said that the pronouns of the 
first and second persons have no distinction of sex, because 
all distinction of this kind is foreign to the intention of the 
speaker, who, when he uses the pronoun I, means the person 
who speaks, be it man or woman ; and when he employs the 
pronoun thou, means the person addressed, without any 
regard to the sex of the individual. This matter seems suifi- 



PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 83 

ciently plain : language, to be useful, must be perspicuous 
and intelligible, exhibiting the subject and its attributes with 
clearness and precision. If it should be asked why the pro- 
noun of the third person has three varieties, Mr. Harris 
would answer, 'to mark the sex/ If it were inquired, 
whence arises the necessity of marking the sex, he would 
answer, and very justly, * in order to ascertain the subject of 
discourse.' It is obvious, therefore, that to note the sex is 
not the primary object, and that the principal aim of the 
speaker is to discriminate and mark the subject. The pro- 
nouns of the first and second persons have no variety of 
form significant of sex, because the speaker and the person 
addressed are evident without it. Mr. Harris, therefore, 
should have said that the pronouns in question have no dis- 
tinction of gender, not because the sex of the speaker and of 
the person addressed, but because the persons themselves, 
are in general obvious without the aid of sexual designation. 
The intention of the speaker is not to denote the sex, but 
the person spoken of, whether male or female ; to ascertain 
which person, if absent, the discrimination of sex is generally 
necessary. The sex, therefore, enters not as an essential, 
but as an explanatory circumstance, — not as the subject of 
discourse, but to distinguish the subject. Where the person 
is present, and is either the speaker or the person addressed, 
discrimination of sex becomes unnecessary, the pronoun 
itself marking the individuals. When the person or subject 
of discourse is absent, the distinction of sex serves frequently 
to determine the subject. Hence the pronoun of the third 
person has three varieties, — he for the masculine, she for the 
feminine, and it for the neuter." 



Relative Pronouns. 

As all pronouns refer to some noun either expressed or 
understood, the characteristic of reference to an antecedent, 
appropriated to this class, does not comprehend any essential 
property by which relative pronouns may be distinguished. 

It has been observed that " relatives partake the nature of 
conjunctions, both as they are the instruments of linking the 

g 2 



84 



PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 



members of sentences together, and as they have no inde- 
pendent signification of their own." 

But it appears hitherto to have escaped the notice of 
grammarians that relatives, like many conjunctions, lessen 
the force of affirmation in the members or clauses which 
they connect, and leave the leading proposition of a com- 
pound sentence more emphatic and distinct ; for example — 
The man hath no music in himself, and he is not moved with 
concord of sweet sounds, and he is fit for treasons. Here 
are three distinct assertions ; but in the original there is but 
one, the force of affirmation being qualified by the relative. 

Ex. The man that hath no music in himself, 

And (that) is not moved with concord of sweet sounds, 
is fit for treasons. 

The first and second clause are definitive, and do not 
require a direct assertion. The same power is observable in 
other pronouns. 

Ex. — I desire to know whether you have finished your 
task. 

The pronoun whether (equivalent to a conjunction) quali- 
fies the last clause, and the sentence, though containing two 
verbs, expresses but one affirmation. 

The pronouns called relative are who, which, that, and 
the compound relative what. 

The pronoun who is either masculine or feminine, and 
refers to persons only ; the pronoun which is neuter ; that is 
common to the three genders ; what is equivalent to the de- 
monstrative that, and the relative which; — this is what I 
sought, i.e. that which J sought. The pronoun who is varied 
to denote the case of the noun for which it stands, as — 
nominative who, possessive whose, objective whom ; which is 
the same in the nominative and objective ; whose is com- 
monly, and without inconvenience, used for the possessive 
of which ; where obscurity is apprehended, the periphrasis of 
which should be employed. By the use of this licence, one 
word is substituted for three, as — " philosophy, whose end is 
to instruct us in the knowledge of nature ; that is, philoso- 
phy, the end of which is to instruct us. 

The pronouns who, which, and what are used as interroga- 
tes . 



PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 85 

Ex. — Who first seduced them to this foul revolt ? 

Mr. Harris observes that, even when these pronouns 
become interrogatives, they do not lose their character as 
relatives, The difference is that, without an interrogation, 
they have reference to a subject which is antecedent, definite, 
and known ; with an interrogation, to a subject which is 
subsequent, indefinite, and unknown, and which it is expected 
that the answer should express and ascertain. 

In interrogative sentences the tone or emphasis distin- 
guishes whether the subject represented by the relative be 
known or unknown. The emphasis is indicated in writing 
by the note of interrogation. 



Adjective Pronouns. 

Adjective pronouns are used as definitives whenever they 
require a noun to complete their signification. In this 
respect (as well as in limiting general terms) they resemble 
adjectives. 

Ex. — Every man should act honestly towards his neigh- 
bour. 

Ex. — Do to other men as you would have others do to 
you. 

Ex. — All are not just because they do no wrong. 

The words usually assigned to this class of pronouns are — 

my your both some such no 

thy their either every latter thus 

his this neither other former few 

her that whether any another many 

our each all one none several 

" One method," says Mr. Harris, " of expressing parti- 
culars is that of proper names. This is the least artificial, 
because proper names, being in every district arbitrarily 
applied, may be unknown to those who know the language 
perfectly well, ancl can hardly, therefore, with propriety, be 
considered as parts of it. The other, and more artificial 
method, is that of definitives or articles, whether we assume 



86 PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 

the pronominal, or those more strictly so called. And here 
we cannot enough admire the exquisite art of language, 
which, without wandering into infinitude, contrives how to 
denote things infinite; that is to say, in other words, which, 
by the small tribe of definitives, properly applied to general 
terms, knows how to employ these last, though, in number, 
infinite, to the accurate expression of infinite particulars." 

To explain what has been said by a single example : — "Let 
the general term be man. I have occasion to apply this 
term to the denoting of some particular. Let it be required 
to express this particular, as unknown, I say, a man ; known, 
I say, the man : indefinite, any man ; definite, a certain man • 
present and near, this man; present and distant, that man; 
like to some other, such a man; an indefinite multitude, many 
men; a definite multitude, a thousand men; the ones of a 
multitude, taken throughout, every man; the same ones, 
taken with distinction, each man; taken in order, first man, 
second man; the whole multitude of particulars, taken col- 
lectively, all men; the negation of this multitude, no man." 
— Harris. Hermes, book iii. chap. 3. 

With this view of the definitive, we conclude the etymo- 
logy of pronouns. 

Syntax of Pronouns. 

Rule 1. Pronouns agree in gender, number, case, and 
person with the nouns they are intended to represent. 

Ex. — " Answer a fool according to his folly lest he be 
wise in his own conceit." — Proverbs xxvi. 4. 

Ex. — "As to the book itself, it can say this in its behalf, 
that it does not merely confine itself to what its title pro- 
mises." — Harris. 

The frequent repetition of the pronoun in this example is 
scarcely perceived, but if the noun had been used the recur- 
rence of the more emphatic term would not only have been 
irksome, but would have rendered the other terms of the 
sentence less forcible. For example : — 

As to the book, the book's self, the book can say this in the 
book's behalf, that the book does not merely confine the book's 
self to what the book's title promises. 

Pronouns, therefore, are used to avoid the force of signifi- 



PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 87 

cation which is attached to the noun, and not merely to 
avoid the repetition of the same word, for it is evident that 
the same pronoun may be repeated in cases where the repe- 
tition of the noun would be considered inelegant. The noun, 
however, should be repeated as often as the subjects are 
changed in a sentence, or whenever perspicuity requires the 
repetition. 

Ex. — "The bodies which we daily handle make us per- 
ceive that whilst they remain between them, they do by an 
insurmountable force hinder the approach of our hands that 
press them." — Locke. 

The pronoun them has no antecedent, and as both the sub- 
jects of the sentence are in the plural number, the pronouns 
should have been used more sparingly. — Thus, 

The bodies which we daily handle make us perceive that 
whilst they remain between our hands, they do by an insur- 
mountable force hinder the approach of our hands that press 
them. 

"When I see too many its in a page" says Mr. Cobbett, 
" I always tremble for the writer." — We are surprised that 
Mr. Cobbett did not detect and quote in justification of his 
fears, the following illustration from the pen of Dr. Lowth, 
for Mr. Cobbett seems to have studied Dr. Lowth's Intro- 
duction carefully, and with no small advantage. 

Ex. — "In English the preposition is more frequently 
placed after the verb, and separates it from it like an adverb, 
in which situation it is no less apt to affect the sense of it, 
and to give it a new meaning, and may still be considered as 
belonging to the verb, and a part it." — Lowth. 

This example may serve to exercise the ingenuity of the 
inexperienced grammarian, by supplying the appropriate 
nouns in the places of the neuter pronoun. 

Each personal pronoun has a corresponding plural, because, 

1st. There may be many persons at once of the same 
sentiment, and the person speaking includes these under the 
pronoun we. 

2ndly. An address may be made to many, as well as to one, 
the pronoun ye or you denotes the plural. 

3rdly. The subject of discourse often includes many, and 
the individuals are denoted by the appropriate pronoun they. 



88 PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 

In the arrangement of pronouns in a sentence the pronoun 
of the second person is generally placed before the pronoun 
of the third; but the pronoun of the first person ought always 
to be placed last. 

Ex. — You and he have quarrelled, i.e. ye have quarrelled; 
he and I are friends, i.e. we are friends. 

It was Mr. Cobbett's ignorance of the principles of gram- 
mar that caused him to condemn this construction. The first 
person is preferred to the second, and the second to the 
third, because the first person plural can represent the three 
persons singular, and the second person plural can include 
the third person singular ; whereas neither the second nor 
the third person plural can include the first person singular, 
nor can the third person plural include the second person 
singular. 

The neuter pronoun "it" is used to denote a. person when 
the sex of the individual is either unknown or not referred to. 

Ex. — Who is it ? — It is the person who called yesterday. 

The same pronoun is also used as an expletive to introduce 
a plural subject, whether the nouns represent persons or 
things. 

Ex.— "Tis they that give the great Atrides* spoils." — 
Prior. 

Ex. — "Tis these that early taint the female soul." — 
Pope. 

Dr. Crombie justly observes that "when a question is 
asked, the subject of which is totally unknown, there must 
be some indefinite word employed to denote the subject of 
the interrogation. The word which we use for this purpose 
is it, as — 'who is it;' ' what is it.' This being the case, there 
can be no impropriety in repeating, in the answer, the indefi- 
nite term employed in the question. We may, therefore, 
reply, 'it is I;' ' it is he ;' ' it is she/ " 

" Now if the term be admitted in questions and answers, 
where the subject may be either male or female, and of the 
first, second, or third person, it surely is admissible in those 
cases also where the subject is in the plural number; nay, to 
use in answer any other word to express the subject than 
that by which it is signified in the question, would be, in all 
cases, if not productive of ambiguity, at least less precise. 



PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 89 

Who is it ? says the master to his servant, hearing a voice in 
the hall. It is the gentlemen who called yesterday, replies the 
servant. Who sees not that, "they are the gentlemen," 
would be an answer less accordant* with the terms of the 
question, and would less clearly show that " the gentlemen," 
and "the subject of inquiry/' both being denoted by one term, 
are one and the same? Had the master known that it was 
the voice of a gentleman, and that there were more than one, 
and he accordingly said, "who are they?" the answer would 
have properly been, "they are the gentlemen," But when 
the question is, "who is \t?" I apprehend the only apposite 
answer is, " it is the gentleman," the identity of the terms (it 
being repeated) clearly evincing the identity of the subject in 
the question and in the answer; in other words, that the sub- 
ject of inquiry, and the subject of the answer, are one and 
the same."f 

The plural pronoun we is often employed to denote an 
individual, instead of the personal pronoun /. The writer 
of these pages has frequently had recourse to this excusable 
licence, because the pronoun we appeared to him less obtru- 
sive, and less likely to withdraw the attention of the reader 
from the subject, than the egotistic pronoun /. Under this 
impression we shall not hesitate to continue the practice. 

The pronoun thou, and consequently the pronoun thee, are 
now rarely employed on ordinary occasions. 

" Thou," says Dr. Ash, in his Grammar, " is used to 
denote the greatest respect, as — O thou most high; and, 
likewise, to denote the greatest contempt, as — thou worth- 
less fellow. 

It was probably some remark of this kind which assisted 
to bring the useful pronoun thou into contempt : — Mankind 
are too apt to credit the assertions of the learned, and to be 
overawed by the authority of a great name. The respect and 
contempt attributed by Dr. Ash to the pronoun is implied in 



* And therefore less grammatical. Phraseologies established by univer- 
sal usage are not, as Dr. Crombie asserts, unexceptionable because they are 
universal, but because such phraseologies are in general (if not always) 
grammatical idioms. It is their perspicuity and accuracy that cause them 
to be universally adopted. 

f Crombie. — Etymology and Syntax, pp. 86, 87. 



90 PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 

the attributes highest and worthless. The pronoun is merely 
emphatic. 

But the agreement which grammarians require to be 
observed between this pronoun and the verb, and which the 
mind perceives to be unnecessary and formal, is perhaps the 
chief cause of its disuse, For, except in the irregular verb 
"to be," the variation of the second person of the verb might 
be dispensed with. But custom has so long associated the 
termination with the pronoun, that it will be difficult to 
persuade a scholar that " thou love" is as grammatical as 
" thou lovest." In fact, the former is better grammar; for 
the syllable est, in the latter, is redundant. 

The last, it is true, is conformable to usage, but the first 
would be in strict conformity with the principles of con- 
struction. We would, however, remind the reader that these 
remarks are not intended as practical, but as theoretical ; for, 
having shown, in another place, the inconvenience of using 
the pronoun you for both numbers, we have added these 
observations to prove that the abuse is not necessary. 

The pronouns my, thy, her, our, your, their, his and its, 
do not express the subject, but the subject's possessor. They 
are the possessive cases of their several personal pronouns. 

The pronouns mine, thine, hers, ours, yours, theirs, belong 
to a class sui generis, and they cannot, with propriety, be 
included in the declensions of personal pronouns. The 
possessives his and its end in s, and have not received the 
additional modification by which others of this class are 
distinguished, when they include, in their signification, the 
subject noun. 

Mine and thine were formerly used for my and thy before 
words beginning with a vowel. 

The pronoun her is used both as the possessive and as the 
objective case of the nominative, she. 

Rule II. The relative pronoun agrees with its antecedent 
in gender, number, and person. The relative is in the same 
case the noun would be in if used in its stead. 

Ex. — " He who renders full justice to his enemy shall have 
friends." 

Who is the nominative case to the verb renders, and agrees 
with its antecedent pronoun he in gender, number, and person. 



PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 91 

Ex. — Arrangement prevents trouble, which is always a 
consequence of confusion. 

The relative which is the nominative to the verb "is," 
and refers to trouble, as its antecedent, in the objective case. 

Mr. Cobbett asserts that the relative can never be the 
nominative or subject of the verb. It does not require 
much grammatical knowledge to detect the inaccuracy of this 
opinion. The last example sufficiently contradicts Mr. 
Cobbett's assertion. But in cases where ambiguity might 
arise, the noun should be repeated. 

The relative that is used sometimes either for who or 
which. 

Ex. — "The poor man who envies not the rich, who pities 
his companions of poverty, and can spare something for him 
that is still poorer, is, in the realms of humanity, a king of 
kings." 

The pronoun that refers to him, and the relative is the 
nominative to the substantive verb. 

Ex. — " The sweetest attribute of humanity, and that which 
affords the most solid and permanent satisfaction in social 
intercourse, is good nature." 

The relative which is the nominative to the verb " affords," 
and refers to the antecedent " attribute." The antecedent 
is also the noun belonging to the demonstrative that. The 
parenthetical clause is elliptical: — "That is the attribute, 
which attribute," &c, and not "which sweetest attribute 
of humanity." This double relative is called by grammarians 
the compound relative, when it is expressed by the single 
term what. 

What has a less determinate signification than "that 
which," and cannot, with propriety, always supply the place of 
those pronouns. 

In the above example it might be used, but it would, 
perhaps, be considered less elegant. 

Ex. — " Happy are they whose amusement is knowledge, 
and whose supreme delight is the cultivation of the mind." 

The relative whose, in this example, represents a noun, 
pertaining to another noun, as its possessor. The relative is, 
therefore, put in the possessive case. It may be observed 
that the pronoun they, in this example, is incorrect, as the 



92 PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 

persons the pronoun represents are indefinite, and the relative 
clause merely contains the description of those persons who are 
happy. It should be — happy are those whose amusements, &c. 

Rule III. The relative is the nominative case to the 
verb when no nominative comes between it and the verb. 

Ex. — True philosophy, which is the ornament of our 
nature, consists more in the love of our duty, and in the 
practice of virtue, than in great talents and extensive know- 
ledge. 

When a nominative comes between the relative and the 
verb, the relative is governed by some word in its own 
member of the sentence. 

Ex. — He who preserves me, to whom I owe my being, 
whose I am, and whom I serve, is eternal. 

" In the several members of the last sentence the relative 
performs a different office. In the first member it marks 
the agent, in the second it submits to the government of the 
preposition, in the third it represents the possessor, and in 
the fourth the object of an action, and therefore it must be 
in the three different cases correspondent to those offices." — 
Murray. 

Rule IV. When the relative is preceded by two nomina- 
tives, it will govern the verb according to the antecedent it 
represents. 

Ex. — I am he who is condemned, but i" who have been 
condemned, am not the guilty person. 

The order of the clauses will determine the person or 
concord of the verb. 

Ex. — I am the man who commands you. 

Ex. — I am the man who command you. 

Of these two examples the first is correct, the last is not. 
It should be, "I who command you am the man." 

" The construction " observes Dr. Crombie, " is by no 
means arbitrary." If we say, "lam the man who commands 
you," the relative clause, with the antecedent man, form 
the predicate, and the sentence is equivalent to " I am your 
commander/' If we say "I am the man who command 
you," the man simply is the predicate, and " I who command 
you," the subject, thus " I who command you," or " I your 
commander am the man." 



PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 93 

Ex. — I am verily a man who am a Jew. 

The relative stands in the place of the speaker as represen- 
ting the man the speaker is describing, and the verb should 
be of the third person, "aman who is a Jew." 

The relative that is used when the verb refers to persons 
and things. 

Ex. — The woman and the estate that became his portion, 
were too much for his moderation. 

"There are cases/' says Mr. Murray, "wherein we cannot 
conveniently dispense with this relative as applied to person;" 
but neither Mr. Murray, nor has any other grammarian 
attempted to explain the cause of this singularity. 

Ex. — Who, that has any sense of religion, would have 
argued thus? 

The relative that has the power of a conditional conjunc- 
tion, and is not simply the nominative to the verb. 

Ex. — Who (if that man has any sense of religion,) would 
have argued thus? 

The conditional clause connected by the relative may be as 
conveniently added by using the present participle of the 
verb without the relative. 

Ex. — Who, having any sense of religion, would have 
argued thus? 

The relative that is used in preference to who, after the 
words '■ same" and " all." Custom has decided this prefer- 
ence, since both are grammatical and equally perspicuous. 

The relative is sometimes made to refer to one of the 
terms of a complex noun, and as the term or phrase the 
relative refers to is the one used definitively or adjectively, 
the mind in general perceives an impropriety. This idiom is 
often the cause of ambiguity, and should if possible be avoided. 

Ex. — The object of this work, which is entirely new, is to 
comprise. 

The mind perceives that " work," only, is the antecedent 
to the pronoun, and not the whole subject of the leading 
sentence, but this is not always so evident. 

Ex. — " For this very remarkable success I am chiefly 
indebted to my anxiety for plain explanation, which I am 
highly gratified to perceive is every day gaining strength and 
popularity." — Brenan. 



94 PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 

The logical or rather grammatical structure of this sentence, 
would induce the reader to suppose that the author's anxiety 
for plain explanation is every day gaining strength and popu- 
larity. The absurdity of this assertion alone makes the 
reader look for another meaning, when he discovers that the 
subordinate noun and its adjective, "plain explanation/' con- 
nected with the principle noun to form the subject is the 
only part of the phrase to which the writer refers. 

This construction sometimes obtains in the use of the 
personal pronouns. 

Ex. — "Had the opinion of my censurers been unanimous, it 
might have overset my resolution; but since I find them at 
variance with each other I can without scruple neglect them, 
and follow my own imagination." — Johnson. 

A remarkable instance of the liability to error arising 
from this mode of expression, occurs in the writings of 
Dr. Watts. 

" If the question be proposed whether excess of wine can 
be hurtful to him that drinks it, and the sophister should 
prove that it revives his spirits, it exhilerates his soul, it gives 
a man courage, and makes him strong and active, and then 
he takes it for granted that he has proved his point." 

The fallacy of this mode of reasoning is detected by the 
grammarian, for he perceives that the subject in the subse- 
quent part of the sentence is changed; for what is there 
stated refers simply to "wine," and not to the "excess 
of wine," as proposed by Dr. Watts in the question. 

Rule V. — When the relative refers to a noun of multitude, 
that represents a collection of individuals taken as a whole, 
the pronoun "which," should be employed, and the verb it 
governs should be in the singular number. 

Ex. — The crowd which was assembled in the street, was 
dispersed by the constables. 

But if the relative who be employed, the individuals are 
separately referred to, and the verb agrees with the noun in 
the plural. 

Ex. — "The crowd who were assembled in the street 
pelted the constables." — i. e. they, the persons, pelted the 
constables, not it pelted. 

This rule is opposed to the opinion of Mr. Cobbett, who 



PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 95 

says that "the crowd which was," and "the crowd who was," 
are equally proper. 

Whose, is employed as the possessive case of which. 

Ex. — " In our ancient law books, a farding-deale of land 
means the fourth part of an acre, whose rent was in Richard 
the second's time so restrained, that for a farding-deale of 
land they paid no more than one penny."- — Horne Tooke. 

It may be remarked that in this example the personal 
pronoun they is used in the vague sense of the French 
pronoun on. 

The relative pronouns have a less definite signification 
when united to the adverbs so and ever, 

/'Whosoever will be saved, before all things it is necessary 
that he hold the catholic faith." 

Ever united to a relative is equivalent to the definitive any, 
whoever, which ever, that is, any who, any which. 

Ever, united to the adverb when has the meaning of the 
adverb always. This may be seen by the following example. 

Ex. — Always when you are examining a sentence, you 
will take into your view the words that are left out. i. e. 
Whenever you are. 

Rule VI. The demonstratives this and that, agree with 
their nouns in number, — as this man, these men ; that nation, 
those nations. 

The phrases — these kind of people, those sort of books, are 
therefore incorrect. 

"It is not always easy," says Mr. Murray, "to say whether 
a personal pronoun or demonstrative is preferable in certain 
constructions." 

Ex. — We are not unacquainted with the calumny of them, 
(or those,) who openly make use of the warmest professions. 

This doubtful point, so troublesome to many writers, has 
been decided by Dr. Epps, whose remarks are too well sup- 
ported by the principles of universal grammar to admit of 
contradiction. 

"There is an advantage which arises from considering 
these words as definitives, as by so doing we shall be prevented 
from falling into an improper use of the pronoun 'them," 
the objective case of the personal pronoun 'they.' Some 
writer says 'we ought to have great respect for them who are 



96 PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 

wise and good.' This them should be those, and for this rea- 
son, that, in the sentence, no persons for whom them can 
stand^have been mentioned. These persons are to be defined, 
and therefore we should say ' those/ or, in other words, we 
should use the definitive to which the noun is added ; or, if 
not, is understood. However, we say ' some persons are wise 
and good ; I love them. Here, them is correct, because 
the persons are defined before hand, and therefore the pronoun 
may stand in their place, but it cannot stand in the place of 
nouns which have not been mentioned. This affords a 
striking difference between the pronoun and the definitive." 
Epps. 

The demonstrative pronoun this, refers to a present, near, 
or last mentioned subject ; that, to an absent, more distant, 
or first mentioned one. In the following example they are 
incorrectly applied. 

Ex, — "That national use might be opposed to foreign 
scarcely needs illustration; for the introduction of extraneous 
words or idioms from other languages, and foreign nations, is 
a greater transgression than the adoption into pure English 
of provincial terms, and cant phrases. This, is the error of 
the learned, that, of the vulgar." — Campbell. 

" The introduction of foreign idioms," being the first men- 
tioned subject, and the error of the learned, the demonstrative, 
that should have been employed, or the words learned and 
vulgar should have exchanged places. " This is the error of 
the vulgar, that of the learned." 

The adjectives/onwer and latter, and the phrases "the one" 
and "the other," are also used as demonstratives. 

Ex. — " When a speaker addresses the understanding, he 
proposes the instruction of his hearers by explaining some- 
thing unknown to them, or by proving some position they 
doubt. His purpose is to dispel ignorance, or to vanquish 
error. In the one his aim is their information, in the other 
their conviction. Accordingly, the predominant quality of 
the former is perspicuity, the latter argument. By that we 
are made to know, .by this to believe." — Campbell. 

Ex. — " Homer was the greater genius, Virgil the better 
artist ; in the one we most admire the man, in the other the 
work." — Pope. 



PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 97 

Mr. Brenan condemns the use of these convenient demon- 
stratives, and asserts that the one and the other are " sheer 
nonsense;" but is Mr. Brenan's practice consistent with his 
criticism ? 

Ex. — "As the colon retreated its half-brother declined so 
much in importance, that we are now independent of both 
one and the other." — Brenan. 

Mr. Brenan's language is both redundant and defective, and 
at the same time inconsistent with his avowed opinion. It 
is redundant because the pronoun "both" includes the one 
and the other. It is defective in the omission of the article 
before one, and its inconsistency is evident from what has 
already been quoted respecting the author's objections to the 
terms he himself uses in the foregoing example. 

The demonstratives, former and latter, are ambiguously 
employed in the following example. 

Ex. — " Language consists of intelligible signs, and is the 
medium by which the mind communicates its thoughts. It 
is either articulate or inarticulate; artificial or natural. The 
former is peculiar to man, the latter is common to all animals." 
Crombie. 

The " former" refers to articulate and artificial, the "latter" 
to inarticulate and natural; but there are few readers, ignorant 
of these distinctions, would so understand the meaning of 
the writer. The sentence thus corrected renders the passage 
intelligible. 

Ex. — Language consists of intelligible signs, and is the 
medium by which the mind communicates its thoughts. It is 
either articulate and artificial, or inarticulate and natural. The 
former is peculiar to man, the latter is common to all animals. 

Rule VII. The adjective pronouns each, every, either, 
neither, whether, agree with nouns in the singular number. 

Ex. — Each man was rewarded. Each of these deserves a 
certain degree of attention, 

Ex. — Every man must account for himself. 

Ex. — It is either day or night. 

Ex. — Neither of my friends was there. 

Ex. — Whether is greater, the gold or the temple? 

The pronoun either, from an affectation of refinement, is 
sometimes used instead of each. 

H 



98 PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 

Ex. — And leaning from the front window with a pistol in 
either hand. 

The writer meant to say the person had a pistol in each 
hand. Either refers to one object, each to several. The 
pronouns either, neither, and whether, are also used as con- 
junctions. 

All is used with a noun singular when it refers to quantity, 
and with a plural noun when it refers to number. The con- 
struction of the following sentence, therefore, though written 
by a grammatist is incorrect. 

Ex. — "For to all is a knowledge of his own language 
necessary." — Kenny. 

It should be " their own language," or rather— For to every 
one is a knowledge of his own language necessary. 

The former and the latter are sometimes used to denote 
the definitives and the subject noun, in the same man- 
ner, and by the same means, as the possessive cases of the 
personal pronouns our, your, denote their subjects by the 
addition of s. The apostrophe, or sign of the genitive, is 
unnecessary, and a departure from analogy. 

Ex. — " The participle is distinguished from the adjective 
by the former's expressing the idea of time, and the latter's 
denoting only a quality." — Murray. 

None, which originally signified no one, is now used as 
plural when it refers to number. 

Ex. — None of them are varied to express the gender. 

Ex. — None of them has attempted to show by what steps 
they proceed. It should be have attempted. 

"Any, the diminutive of ane or one, involves, in common 
with a or an, the idea of unity; but it is used still more 
indefinitely, being employed to denote whatever one of a num- 
ber it be." Many, few, several, some, denote number inde- 
finitely: many is opposed to few. 

Ex. — Many are called, few are chosen. 

"Both signifies two persons or things taken together." 



Ex. " We, Hermia, like two artificial gods, 

Have, with our needle, created both one flower, 

Both on one sampler, sitting on one cushion; 

Both warbling of one song, both in one key, 

As if our hands, our sides, voices, and minds, 

Had been incorporate." Shakespeare. 



PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 99 

Other is a definitive, and requires to be joined to a noun 
to complete the subject; it is used before singular and plural 
nouns. 

Ex. — " Milton uses the same manner of expression in a 
few other places of his Paradise Lost, and more frequently in 
his poems." — Lowth. 

The pronoun other should also have been used before the 
word " poems," for the Paradise Lost was one of Milton's 
Poems. Dr. Lowth's construction implies that it was a 
prose production. 

We shall conclude the syntax of pronouns with a short 
extract from Dr. Lowth's Introduction, on the importance 
of the relative and other pronouns. "The accuracy and 
clearness of the sentence depend very much upon the proper 
and determinate use of the relative, so that it may readily 
present its antecedent to the mind of the hearer or reader, 
without any obscurity or ambiguity. The same may be 
observed of the 'pronoun and the noun, which, by some, are 
called also the relative and antecedent." 

A pronoun may be known by its being the representative 
of a noun, either expressed or understood. 



Illustration of Pronouns. 

The Closing Scene of a Worldly and Selfish Character. 

" The obsequies of the dead were like the living character 
of the woman, cold, formal, and artificial. The sexton and 
his assistants had hardly commenced replacing the stone 
which covered the entrance of the vault, when a knot of 
elderly men set the example of desertion, by moving away 
in a body from the spot. As they picked their footsteps 
among the graves, and over the frozen ground of the church- 
yard, they discoursed idly together of the fortunes and age of 
the woman of whom they had now taken their leave for ever. 
The curse of selfishness appeared even to have fallen on the 
warning which so sudden an end should have given to those 
who forgot they tottered themselves on the brink of the grave. 
They spoke of the deceased, as of one who had failed to awaken 

h 2 



100 PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 

the charities of our nature; and though several ventured con- 
jecture as to the manner in which she had disposed of her 
worldly possessions, no one remembered to lament that she 
had not longer continued to enjoy them. From this theme 
they soon wandered to themselves, and the whole party 
quitted the churchyard, joking each other on the inroads of 
time, each man attempting to ape the elastic tread of youth, 
in order not only to conceal from his companions the ravages 
of age, but with a vain desire to extend the artifice so far, if 
possible, as. to deceive himself." — Cooper. 



CHAPTER VII. 



THE VERB. 

" All those attributives which have the complex power of denoting both an 
attribute and an assertion make that species of words which grammarians 
call verbs." — Harris. 

" Of the whole class of words" says Blair, "that are called 
attributive, indeed of all the parts of speech, the most com- 
plex, by far, is the verb. It is chiefly in this part of speech, 
that the subtle and profound metaphysic of language appears, 
and therefore in examining the nature and different varia- 
tions of the verb, there might be room for ample discussion." 

Mr. Cobbett thought " it impossible to give a short and 
precise description of this part of speech, because there are 
so many properties and circumstances, so many and such 
different powers and functions belonging to it." 

Now, there is only one property or circumstance, power 
or function, that characterises the grammarians' verb, and 
this property is its power of predicating the existence of an 
attribute, for when any word ceases to have this power, it is 
no longer considered by grammarians to be a verb. Almost 
every writer, who has carefully examined the structure of 
language, admits that this power of affirmation is the only 
criterion by which a verb may be known, and that the essence 
of the verb consists in affirmation. 

But it is contended that in making a verb a mere sign it is 
degraded from its rank, and confounded with a species of 
words which are not even necessary to the communication 
of thought. In answer to this objection, it may be urged 
that words are not always to be valued in proportion to the 
extent of their meaning, for their value may arise from the 
importance of their use; thus, the verb, or sign of affirmation, 



102 PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 

is as indispensable in communicating our thoughts, as is the 
noun which denotes the subject, or the term which denotes 
that which is affirmed of the subject, for without the affirma- 
tive sign, either expressed or understood, there can be no 
complete sentence or proposition ; but as light would not be 
less valuable if it could be proved to be a mere phenomenon, 
so this word cannot be " degraded" even when divested of its 
meaning. 

The verb, however, is rarely used without conveying the 
notion of an attribute, and this has induced grammarians in 
general to include the attribute in their definition of a verb, 
and some writers have, in theory, gone so far as to make the 
attribute the essential characteristic. 

Mr. Murray says, " A verb is a word which signifies to be, 
to do, or to suffer." He afterwards remarks, " In our defi- 
nition of the verb, as a part of speech, which signifies to be, 
to do, or to suffer, &c. we have included every thing either 
expressly or by necessary consequence that is essential to its 
nature, and nothing that is not essential to it. This definition 
is warranted by the authority of Dr. Lowth, and many other 
respectable writers on grammar." 

If Mr. Murray had said that his definition was warranted 
by the nature of the verb, and consistent with his own in- 
structions and practice, when he analyses a sentence, we 
should have paid more respect to his opinion ; but as we con- 
sider great names of no weight when opposed to the laws of 
language, and as we are convinced that the rules of every 
science are independent of authority, we venture to controvert 
the propriety of this definition, for Mr. Murray has omitted 
the very property which alone qualifies this word to be what 
he himself calls it " The chief word in every sentence." 

The proofs which Mr. Murray advances against the 
opinions of those who consider assertion as the essence of the 
verb are, that " The participle and infinitive, if included in it, 
would prove insuperable objections to their scheme, as they 
have, without hesitation, denied the former a place in the 
verb, and declared the latter to be merely a verbal noun. 

Now the participles are modifications of the infinitive or 
verbal noun, and they are, in fact, the words which signify 
being, doing, and suffering (to be, to do, and to suffer,); but 



PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 103 

although these words answer precisely to Mr. Murray's defini- 
tion of a verb, Mr. Murray, notwithstanding, rejects them, and 
confines the term "verb" to those modifications of the attribute 
which affirm, and yet he denies assertion to be the essential 
characteristic of this part of speech. What consistency can 
be found in such a theory, or how are such instructions to 
be comprehended? 

" A verb," says Dr. Crombie, "has been defined to be that 
part of speech which signifies to be, to do, or to suffer ; or, 
more correctly, that part of speech which predicates some 
action, passion, or state of its subject Its essence consists 
in affirmation, and by this property it is distinguished from 
every other part of speech." 

"The verb to be frequently denotes pure affirmation, as 
— God is good, where the verb, or copula, as it has been 
termed, serves to predicate of the Deity, the attribute denoted 
by the following word." Here it expresses mere affirma- 
tion. Sometimes it predicates pure and absolute existence, 
as — God is, that is, — God exists. In the following example 
it occurs in both senses. 

Ex. — We believe that thou art, and that thou art the 
re warder of them who diligently seek thee. 

Notwithstanding Dr. Crombie's clear explanation of the 
nature of the verb, he still adheres to the usual definition. 

" As nouns denote the subjects of our discourse, so verbs 
predicate their accidents or properties. The former are the 
names of things, and the latter what we say concerning them." 

This is making no distinction between the attribute and 
the verb, and the writer contradicts his approved definition, 
for when the verb denotes pure affirmation, as — God is just, 
the adjective "just" denotes what we say of the subject, but 
this attribute has no pretention to the character of a verb, 
the word is maintains its rank unincumbered by any other 
meaning than that of simple affirmation. 

Mr. Tooke denies affirmation to be essential to the verb, 
and he also declares that no single word can imply assertion. 
This last opinion has already been proved by Dr. Crombie 
to be erroneous ; and we suspect, notwithstanding Mr.Tooke's 
decided tone, that he knew very little of the nature of the 
verb. It is true he promised to explain the character of 



104 PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 

this important part of speech, but when he arrived at the 
question — what is a verb? he artfully evaded the discussion. 
The little he has incidentally said upon the subject is 
neither new, nor much to the purpose. 

"The infinitive, says this writer, appears plainly to^be what 
the Stoics called it, the very verb itself, pure and uncom- 
pounded, with the various accidents, of mood, of number, of 
gender, of person, and, in English, of tense, which accidents 
are in some languages joined to the verb by variety of termi- 
nation, and in some by an additional word, signifying the 
added circumstance." 

The infinitive mood is an abstract noun and does not 
affirm ; it simply denotes, or names, an action or state of 
being; it is not therefore the word or verb of a sentence. 

Mr. Lewis defines a verb to be a word which, when placed 
after a noun or pronoun, expresses something respecting it, 
and when placed before it either commands or asks a question. 
This does not inform the reader what a verb is, it merely 
directs him to the part of a sentence, where verbs are usually 
to be found. In another part of his grammar, Mr. Lewis 
alludes to the essential characteristic of a verb, — "Any num- 
ber of words, says he, thrown together by accident, convey 
a distinct sense or meaning in themselves, or, separately, 
excite certain ideas in the mind, but they do not inform us 
of the intentions and views of the speaker in using them, for 
it is the proper object of speech to communicate. In short, 
words so thrown together want the dictum; they want that 
which marks the intention of the speaker,— the word which 
is emphatically called the word, that is, the verb." 

Notwithstanding these pertinent observations, it is evident 
that Mr. Lewis confounds this dictum or sign of affirmation 
with the attribute, for he says, — " The verb represents the 
thing or action affirmed or denied of the subject." 

"Verb," says Dr. Russell, " means said of a thing." 

This definition, it will be seen, arises from the notion that 
a verb is "what we say concerning the subject;" but we say 
of many things that they are black or white, right or wrong; 
and every one knows that such words are not verbs ; they are 
not even participial adjectives. It is true, that what are 
called verbs may be formed from these qualities, by prefixing 



PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 105 

the sign which gives to a word an active signification ; but the 
ideas such words are intended to express are very different 
from those which we attach to the names of the simple quali- 
ties. Thus from wrong may be formed the verbal attribute 
to wrong, and when this attribute is " said of a thing," as — 
" he wrongs his friend," the word is so far a verb as it serves 
to express the affirmation ; but that which is affirmed, " the 
act of wronging," is not the verb, but the attribute, or active 
participle. 

" Some attributes," says Mr. Harris, (who appears to have 
understood the true character of the verb better than his 
great opponent Mr. Tooke, or any of the little critics who 
have echoed Mr. Tooke's opinions,) "have their essence in 
motion, such are — to walk, to fly, to strike, to live. Others 
have it in the privation of motion, such are — to stop, to 
rest, to cease, to die. And, lastly, others have it in subjects 
which have nothing to do with either motion or its privation, 
such are the attributes of great and little, white and black, 
wise and foolish; and, in a word, the several quantities, and 
qualities of all things. Now these last are adjectives, those 
which denote motions or their privation are either verbs or 
participles, and these attributes having the complex power 
of denoting an attribute and an assertion, make that species 
of words which grammarians call verbs." 

Mr. M'Culloch, a modern writer on grammar, professes 
to take an original view of this intricate part of speech ; but, 
although he at first considers affirmation as the sine qua non 
of a verb, still, like his predecessors, he confounds that essen- 
tial characteristic with the predicate, and ultimately makes 
" that which is said of the subject" to be the verb. 

" Verb," says the writer, " is the name given to all words 
whose office is to predicate or assert, as — strikes, walks, is." 

" As the noun is the word in a sentence which names the 
thing about which we speak, so the verb is the word which 
asserts or declares what we say concerning it." 

" The verb, in common with the adjective, expresses the 
quality or property of a noun; but these parts of speech are 
quite distinct, the adjective merely expresses quality, as con- 
joined with the noun it affirms nothing; but the verb always 
affirms." 



106 PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 

"Nouns and verbs are the only indispensable parts of 
speech; the one to express the subject spoken of, and the 
other the predicate or what is affirmed of it." 

This is a direct contradiction, for the author has affirmed 
that the adjective is a part of speech quite distinct from the 
verb, and now he repeats that the noun and verb are the 
only indispensable parts of speech ? The fact is, the adjective 
differs essentially from those attributes which admit the force 
of affirmation, therefore adjectives are as indispensable as 
either the noun or the verb. 

It matters not by what contrivance adjectives are supplied, 
whether it be by using a noun adjectively, as — sea water, or 
more awkwardly by employing a preposition, as — a man of 
wealth, instead of a more appropriate term, a wealthy man, 
in every instance the name of the quality in concreto differs 
both in the extent of its signification and in its application, 
from the correspondent abstract noun; for the adjective 
and its noun do not denote distinct objects of perception 
when thus associated, but they unite and represent a par- 
ticular individual. 

"A verb," says Mr. Lennie, " is a word that affirms some- 
thing of its nominative, or " — 

"A verb is a word which expresses being,, doing, or 
suffering." 

This author, as if conscious of the contradiction contained 
in his definitions, has had the former printed in a smaller 
type, he might however have given the approved definition 
the preference. 

" A verb," says Mr. Walker, "is a part of speech sig- 
nifying existence, or some modifications thereof, as — action, 
or passion." 

But the verb only predicates existence, action, or passion ; 
the word representing either of these attributes is the 
predicate. This definition is therefore perplexing and in- 
accurate. 

Dr. Lowth, being the authority of most English gramma- 
rians, has the merit of the definition, that — a verb is a word 
which signifies to be, to do, and to suffer. Grammarians say 
truly, that the verb signifies being and doing, for the verb 
is the sign by which abstract names of actions and states 



PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 107 

of being are united as attributes to other nouns, but the 
sense in which grammarians use the verb " to signify," is 
equivocal, and as regards their meaning misapplied. For 
they generally suppose that a verb means "to be, to do, or 
to suffer;" but they find it more convenient to say that verbs 
signify these attributes. 

" That the participle is a mere mood of the verb," says 
Dr. Lowth, "is manifest if our definition of a verb be ad- 
mitted, for it signifies being, and doing, and suffering, with 
the designation of time superadded. But if the essence of 
the verb be made to consist in affirmation, not only the par- 
ticiple will be excluded from its place in the verb, but the 
infinitive itself also, which certain ancient grammarians of 
great authority held to be alone the genuine verb, denying 
that title to all the other moods." 

These objections by Dr. Lowth have been noticed in the 
preceding remarks on Mr. Murray's definition of a verb. 
The present participle is a mood of the abstract noun, and 
as such may be attributed to its subject. It denotes an 
existing action, and necessarily implies present time. The 
genuine verb of Dr. Lowth's great authorities is the abstract 
verbal noun : it will neither admit of a nominative, nor the 
force of affirmation, nor does the infinitive under any circum- 
stances lose its independent character as a noun. 

Dr. Ash, a grammatical follower of Dr. Lowth, varies the 
original definition, and calls a verb a word which signifies the 
action or being of a person or thing, as — the man calls ; the 
city stands-, the tree falls; I am. 

Dr. Johnson has not defined the verb in his Grammar, 
but in his Dictionary he has quoted a rather better definition 
than is usually given. 

Verb, — a part of speech signifying existence or some 
modification thereof, as — action, passion ; and, withal, some 
disposition or intention of the mind relating thereto, as of 
affirming, denying, interrogating, commanding. 

" Besides words which are names of ideas in the mind, there 
are a great many others that are made use of to signify the 
connection that the mind gives to ideas or propositions one 
with another. The mind, in communicating its thoughts to 
others, does not only need signs of the ideas it has then before 



108 PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 

it, but others also to show, or intimate, some particular 
action of its own, at that time relating to those ideas. This 
it does several ways, as — is, and is not, are the general marks 
of the mind affirming or denying. But besides affirmation 
or negation, without which there is in words no truth or 
falsehood, the mind does, in declaring its sentiments to others, 
connect not only the parts of propositions, but whole sen- 
tences, one to another, with their several relations and depen- 
dencies, to make a coherent discourse." — Locke. 

"A verb," says Dr. Blair, " is so far of the same nature with 
the adjective, that it expresses like it an attribute or property 
of some person or thing. But it does more than this : for, in 
all verbs, in every language, there are'no less than three things 
implied at once : — The attribute of some substantive, an affir- 
mation concerning that attribute, and time. Thus, when I 
say — the sun shineth, shining is the attribute ascribed to the 
sun, the present time is marked, and an affirmation is inclu- 
ded that this property belongs to the sun; the participle 
shining is merely an adjective which denotes an attribute or 
property, and also expresses time, but carries no affirmation. 
The infinitive mood to shine, may be called the name of the 
verb; it carries neither time nor affirmation, but simply 
expresses that attribute, action, or state of things, which is to 
be the subject of the other moods and tenses. Hence, the 
infinitive often carries the resemblance of a substantive noun, 
and in English is sometimes constructed as such, as — to 
write well is difficult; to speak eloquently is still more diffi- 
cult. But as through all the other tenses the affirmation 
runs, and is essential to them, the affirmation seems to be 
that which chiefly distinguishes the verb from the other parts 
of speech, and gives it its most conspicuous power. Hence 
there can be no sentence, or complete proposition, without 
a verb either expressed or implied : for whenever we speak 
we always mean to assert that something is, or is not, and 
the word which carries this assertion or affirmation is a verb. 
From this sort of eminence belonging to it, this part of 
speech hath received its name, verb, from the Latin verbum, 
or the word by way of distinction." 

The preeminence ascribed by this writer to the verb arises 
entirely from its property of predicating, and not from the 



PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 109 

active or passive signification of the attribute. For being, 
doing, or suffering, may be expressed by joining the active or 
past participle to a noun, as — an existing circumstance, a 
working man, a wounded soldier. 

The difficulty hitherto felt in comprehending this intricate 
part of speech appears to have arisen chiefly from the man- 
ner in which it has been explained. For grammarians have 
made no distinction between the word or sign which affirms, 
and the word which denotes that which is affirmed. They 
have treated them as idem et alter, and by endeavouring to 
prove that the verb and the predicate are the same, they have 
rendered the definitions vague, and their explanations unin- 
telligible. 

As the structure of language is so connected with the 
verb, the following remarks on the nature of a proposition 
may be advantageously perused by many, as preliminary to 
any further observations respecting the essential characteris- 
tic of this important part of speech. The reader who has not 
had the advantage of a liberal education will also be enabled 
to understand, more accurately, the terms used by gramma- 
rians, when those writers treat of the nature of the verb ; he 
will, at the same time, perceive the principle which regulates 
the construction of sentences. 

A proposition is a sentence wherein two or more ideas 
or terms are joined or disjoined by one affirmation or nega- 
tion, as — Plato was a philosopher; every angle is formed by 
two lines meeting; no man living on earth can be completely 
happy. 

There are three things which go to the nature and consti- 
tution of a proposition, (viz.) the subject, the predicate, and 
the copula. 

The subject of a proposition is that concerning which any 
thing is affirmed or denied, so — Plato, angle, man living on 
earth, are the subjects of the foregoing propositions. 

The predicate is that which is affirmed or denied of the 
subject; so philosopher is the predicate of the first proposi- 
tion; formed by two lines meeting is the predicate of the 
second; capable of being completely happy is the proper pre- 
dicate of the third. 

The subject and predicate of a proposition, taken together, 



110 PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 

are called the matter of it, for these are the materials of 
which it is made. 

The copula is the form of a proposition; it represents the 
act of the mind affirming or denying, and it is expressed 
by these words — am, art, is, are, &c, or, am not, art not, is 
not, are not, &c. 

It is not a thing of importance, enough to create a dispute, 
whether the words no, none, not, never, &c. which disjoin 
the idea or terms in a negative proposition, shall be called a 
part of the subject of the copula, or of the predicate. Some- 
times, perhaps, they may seem most naturally to be included 
in one, and sometimes in another of these, though a propo- 
sition is usually denominated affirmative or negative by its 
copula. 

Where each of these parts of a proposition is not ex- 
pressed distinctly in so many words, yet they are all under- 
stood, and implicitly contained therein, as — Socrates disputed, 
is a complete proposition, for it signifies — Socrates was dis- 
puting. So, I die, signifies I am dying. I can write, i.e. I 
I am able to write. In Latin and Greek one single word is 
many times a complete proposition. 

These words — am, art, is, &c. when they are used alone, 
without any other predicate, signify both the act of the mind, 
judging which includes the copula, and signify also actual 
existence, which is the predicate of that proposition. So, 
Rome is, signifies Rome is existent. There are some strange 
monsters, that is, some strange monsters are existent. Car- 
thage is no more, i.e. Carthage has no being. 

The subject and predicate of a proposition are not always 
to be known and distinguished by the placing of the words in 
the sentence, but by reflecting duly on the sense of the words, 
and on the mind and design of the speaker or writer; as — 
if I say, " In Africa there are many lions," I mean, many 
lions are existent in Africa. Many lions is the subject, and 
existent in Africa is the predicate. "It is proper for a 
philosopher to understand geometry;" here, the word proper 
is the predicate, and all the rest is the subject, except is, the 
copula. 

The subject and predicate of a proposition ought always 
to be two different ideas, or two different terms, for where 



PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. Ill 

both the terms and ideas are the same it is called an identi- 
cal proposition, which is mere trifling, and cannot tend to 
promote knowledge, such as — a rule is a rule, or a good man 
is a good man. 

But there are some propositions wherein the terms of the 
subject and predicate seem to be the same, yet the ideas are 
not the same ; nor can these be called purely identical or 
trifling propositions, such as — home is home, that is, home 
is a convenient or delightful place. Socrates is Socrates still, 
that is, the man Socrates is still a philosopher. The hero was 
not a hero, that is, the hero did not show his courage. What 
I have written I have written, that is, what I wrote I still 
approve, and will not alter it. What is done is done, that 
is, it cannot be undone. It may be easily observed in these 
propositions the term is equivocal, for in the predicate it has 
a different idea from what it has in the subject. 

"There are also some propositions wherein the terms of the 
subject and predicate differ, but the ideas are the same; and 
these are not merely identical or trifling propositions, as — 
impudent is shameless, a billow is a wave, or fluctus (in 
Latin) is a wave, a globe is a round body. In these propo- 
sitions either the words are explained by a definition of the 
name, or the ideas by a definition of the things, and there- 
fore they are by no means useless when formed for this 
purpose." — Watts' Logic, part ii. chap. 1 . 

Having endeavoured, in this chapter, to show the true 
character of that part of speech called by grammarians " the 
verb," and that its essential property consists in affirmation, 
we shall henceforth consider those words verbs that possess 
this property, whether such words include the attribute, or 
simply denote affirmation, and in doing this we shall be 
better able to adhere to the usual practice of grammarians. 



CHAPTER VIII. 



THE AUXILIARY VERBS. 

The verbs of this class have been called Auxiliaries by 
some grammarians, " because they help to conjugate other 
verbs." 

From this we are led to believe that their use extends no 
further than to the tables of verbs, given by grammarians. 
Other writers say that these verbs, "denote the time of the 
verb," but they have not shown how the time of one verb 
can indicate the time of another verb, nor that each verb 
does not denote its own time. We shall endeavour to show, 
in this chapter, that every word which affirms necessarily, 
denotes present or past existence, and consequently implies 
present or past time, and that these verbs are called auxiliary 
because, having lost their original force of signification, they 
are used nearly in the character of adverbs. 

The verb, " to be" is not only the most extensively useful, 
but is also the earliest of the auxiliaries, and is thus conju- 
gated. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

I am We are 

Thou art Ye or you are 

He, she, or it is They are 

Past Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

I was We were 

Thou wast Ye or you were 

He, she, or it was They were 



PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 113 



Present Participle. Past Participle. 

Being Been 



INFINITIVE MOOD. 

To be. 

The more regular form of the verb has been retained when 
a condition is implied by a conjunction, or otherwise, as — 

Present Tense. 

Singular, Plural. 

If I be If we be 

If thou be If ye or you be 

If he, she, or it be If they be 

Past Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

If I were If we were 

If thou wert If ye or you were 

If he were If they were 

This is denominated the subjunctive mood. By a strange 
anomaly the plural of the past indicative is used both for the 
singular and the plural of the past subjunctive, and also for 
all the persons. This, however, proves that it is not essential 
to distinguish number and person by modifying the verb, and 
from a slight examination the distinction of mood will be 
found useless, because the condition is expressed either by a 
distinct sign, or by a change of position in the noun and 
verb. " If I am," and " If I be," differ not in meaning, but 
in their conformity or nonconformity with usage. 

The irregularity of this verb is perhaps one cause why its 
use has been so imperfectly understood. The third person 
singular of the two tenses, the participles, and the infinitive 
mood, are the only essential parts of the verb. The modifi- 
cations of an attribute, merely to denote number and person, 
are unnecessary, because in English the subject is expressed, 
or distinctly understood. The various forms of the present 
of this verb, be, am, art, is, are, have but one use, and but 



114 PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 

one meaning, they simply affirm and imply the existence of 
qualities, actions, or states of nouns. But we beg the reader 
to understand that we do not point out these redundancies 
by way of suggesting any improvement which might be made 
in the form of this difficult part of speech, we do it merely 
to show what changes are essential in the modification of the 
verb. 

" In philosophical strictness," observes Mr. Murray, " both 
number and person might be entirely excluded from every 
verb. They are in fact the properties of substantives, not a 
part of the essence of the verb." 

The only exception to this important principle occurs in 
the third person singular, present tense, indicative mood. 
There a distinction is necessary, not because the verb should 
agree with its nominative, but to distinguish the manner of 
expressing the attribute, as — John smites Charles, for without 
some modification, the indicative mood could not in such 
cases be distinguished from the imperative, and both would 
then be expressed, by — John smite Charles. The force of 
affirmation is therefore expressed by the sign s, and not by 
the mere position of the noun and the verb. 

The most simple and essential attribute of a noun is its 
existence, and this is implied by the copula when no other 
attribute is predicated of a noun. Hence the origin of the 
substantive verb, to be; but when another attribute is predi- 
cated, that quality, and not the attribute of existence, is 
affirmed, for a simple proposition contains but one affirma- 
tion, and implies but one attribute. 

The existence of nouns and their attributes may be actual, 
and the verb which thus predicates their existence necessarihj 
implies present time, as — am, is, are. 

The duration of the existence of attributes or objects may 
be expired, and then existence can no longer be spoken of as 
actual, but as past, and the verb which denotes this past 
existence requires a modification, and the sign necessarily 
denotes past time, as — was, been; or, 

The existence of an attribute may be spoken of s contin- 
gent, and thus necessarily require a sign or modification to 
denote futurity, as — to be. 

Since existence may be predicated, as either present, past, 



PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 115 

or future, it follows, that the existence of any other attribute 
may be predicated in like manner, admitting, also, the various 
modifications implied by the auxiliary verbs, as— he is writing, 
he was Writing, he is to write. 

Time and manner are not attributes of the noun, but should 
be regarded as adjuncts of the predicate, whether expressed 
or implied. " Actions and states of being may be predicated 
as either certain or contingent, free or necessary, possible 
or impossible, obligatory or optional; in short, they may 
take place in a variety of ways. They may be spoken of as 
diversified in their modes of production. Hence arises 
another accident of verbs called a mood, expressing the mode 
or manner of existence. In English there is only one mood — 
the indicative. Conditionally, power, contingency, certainty, 
liberty, and duty, are denoted by auxiliary verbs." — Crombie. 

The attempt to form a subjunctive by modifying a few of 
the persons in the present and past tenses is as awkward as 
it is useless ; for if one person of a tense require a repetition 
of the subjunctive sign, why not give it to all, and to every 
tense when conditionality is implied. The only modification 
that the original tenses can admit of is the addition of an 
adverb denoting time, but this is usually accomplished by 
the auxiliaries and participles. 

Auxiliary verbs admit of two tenses, the past and the 
present, for the conditionality may be spoken of as pre- 
sent or past ; but the attribute joined to these verbs being 
contingent, always denotes the future action or state of being, 
as — I will write, i.e. I will to write, or I am willing to 
write. I may depart, i.e. I have liberty to depart. I can 
stay, i.e. I am able to stay. 

The auxiliary verbs require to be joined to a principal 
attribute before a complete sentence can be formed — I may, 
I must, I ought, they shall, &c, or, I can have, I might have 
had, &c, are incomplete sentences. The auxiliaries are now 
chiefly used as adverbs,* to modify the past or future existence 



* Numerous examples might be quoted in proof of the use of auxiliaries 
as adverbs — " I may have stepped beyond the exact line of palatable license," 
is equivalent to, — I perhaps have stepped beyond the exact line of palatable 
license. 

i 2 



116 PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 

of some principal attribute. Some are regular verbs, and 
consequently have the participles, and the infinitive mood. 

The force of affirmation is in the auxiliary, because the 
will, power, liberty, &c, may exist, or may have existed, and, 
therefore, they can admit the predicating sign, but the exis- 
tence of that which is probable, or even certain, cannot be 
predicated as existing or actual, without implying a contra- 
diction, and, therefore, the word denoting future action or 
state of being will not admit the force of affirmation, as — 
to be, — to move, &c. This form of the verb has been de- 
nominated the infinitive mood, or name of the verb. 

We confess that we never have well comprehended the 
meaning of this term, infinitive, as applied to the verb. * 

We can easily conceive that the infinitive mood is a verbal 
noun, though modified by the preposition ; for this does not 
alter the independent character of the word, any more than 
good would alter the independent character of a substantive ; 
it only adds some quality to the word by which it may be 
known from another noun of the same name ; we also per- 
ceive that the infinitive mood will not admit the sign of affir- 
mation, but merely pointing out these peculiarities does not 
explain why the infinitive mood should be called the verb, 
nor does this definition show wherein the infinitive mood dif- 
fers from the present participle, which is the name of the 
existing action, or from the abstract noun of which the infini- 
tive is merely a modification, as — I act, or do an act ; I am 
acting, or doing an act ; I am to act, or to do an act. The 
attribute is the same, but the time of future action is denoted 
by a preposition, and with this modification the future action 
may be predicated, as — I intend to walk ; I mean to ride. 

What grammarians have, hitherto, called the passing or 
finished time, the imperfect or perfect time, is nothing else 
but the passing or finished action ; the imperfect or perfect 
action, or state, and these when predicated necessarily denote 
the times pointed out by the several modifications of the 
attribute ; hence, the adverb, denoting the precise time of the 
action or state of being, is seldom employed. The obscurity 

* " Some are contented to call to a mark of the infinitive mood ; but how 
or why it is so they are totally silent." — Tooke. 



PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 117 

and confusion in the explanations of this property of the 
verb may be ascribed to the erroneous opinion that time is 
purposely denoted by the tenses of the verb. 

We shall now proceed with the conjugations of the remain- 
ing auxiliary verbs — have, do, shall, will, may, can, ought, 
let, and must.* 

To do. 
INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

I do We do 

Thou doest or dost Ye or you do 

He, she, or it does They do 

Past Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

I did We did 

Thou didst Ye or you did 

He, she, or it did They did 

Present Participle. Past Participle. 

Doing Done 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

To do. 

To have. 
INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

I have We have 

Thou hast Ye or you have 

He has They have 

* Do is a regular verb, but when used as an auxiliary it denotes emphasis 
or a modification of the principal attribute, as— he does know the truth ;— 
does he confess ? — he did not repent. 

" To do is used for any verb to save the repetition of the word, as— I 
shall come, but if I do not, go away, that is, if I come not." 



118 philosophy of language. 

Past Tense. 

Singula?*. Plural. 

I had We had 

Thou hadst Ye or you had 

He had They had 

Present Participle. Past Participle. 

Having Had 



x b 



INFINITIVE MOOD. 

To have. 

To have is also a regular verb, and signifies possession, 
as — he has the book ; they had the property. It is used as 
an auxiliary to itself, as — I have had the book. They had 
had the property. The use of this verb will be best seen 
when we come to examine the properties of a regular verb. 





Will. 


INDICATIVE MOOD. 




Present Tense. 


Singula? . 
I will 
Thou wilt 
He will 


Plural. 
We will 
Ye or you will 
They will 




Past Tense. 


Singular. 
I would 
Thou wouldst 
He would 


Plural. 
We would 
Ye or you would 
They would 



There can be little doubt but the regular verb to will, was 
originally used instead of this auxiliary, and that the future 
action or state of the noun was denoted by the preposition 
to, the sign of the infinitive, as — I will to come. 

That the meanings of most of these auxiliaries are obscure 
has been proved by the several unsuccessful attempts to fix 
their precise significations. When the root of any word 
becomes obsolete by the introduction of a synonymous term, 



PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 119 

or by an elliptical manner of expression, the derivatives of 
the original term often become corrupted in meaning, and 
are used in a vague or indeterminate manner, either as signs, 
or modifications of more significant words. This appears to 
be the case with auxiliary verbs. They are for the most 
part modifications of words which no longer exist in the lan- 
guage. 

Dr. Johnson's definitions of shall and will have been 
called perspicuous. Whether they explain the meaning 
of those words the reader can decide. 

"I shall love. It will be so that I must love. I am re- 
solved to love. Shall I love. Will it be permitted me to 
love ? Will it be that I must love. Thou shall love. I 
command thee to love. It is permitted thee to love. It 
will be that thou must love. Shalt thou love. Will it be 
that thou must love. Will it be permitted thee to love. 
He shall love. It will be that he must love. It is com- 
manded that he love. Shall he love? Is it permitted him 
to love?" 

The plural persons follow the signification of the singular. 

" I will come. I am willing to come. I am determined to 
come. Thou wilt come. It must be that thou must come, 
importing necessity ; or it shall be that thou shalt come, 
importing choice. Wilt thou come? Hast thou determined 
to come, importing choice. He will come. He is resolved 
to come, or it must be, that he must come, importing choice 
or necessity." 

An Irish gentleman has lately published his opinions 
respecting the import of shall and will. One example will 
suffice the English Scholar: — 

'■ Pray tell me what you mean by / think I shall, which 
you arid learned men, likewise, so often say? Is it not a 
kind of double doubting : — something like I think of think- 
ing? Does it not appear to you more correct to say — / 
think I will?** 

In answer to this, we ask Mr. Brenan what sense there is 
in " / think I will ;" for surely every one who is capable of 
knowing his own mind knows whether he will, though he 
may doubt whether he shall, do a thing. It is true, an 
Irishman says, I think I will die of this disease; but an 



120 PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 

Englishman being, perhaps, not quite so willing to die, 
would say — I think I shall die of this disease, i.e. I fear the 
disease is such as must, or ought, to produce that consequence, 
— I will not die, but I think the disease will kill me. 

Nearly the whole of Mr Brenan's observations on these 
words, " shall and will," is in opposition to their original 
meaning, and at variance with their application, by correct 
and well educated English writers. No man in his senses 
fears what he wills, though he may fear what is willed by 
another. The expression, oh assist me, I fear I willbe drowned, 
is an Irishism, and therefore inexcusable from the lips of an 
Englishman. An Englishman fears that the water will 
drown him, or that he shall be drowned by the water. 

Shall and will have, however, been so often misapplied, 
that considerable difficulty occurs when any one attempts to 
fix their precise signification. Still, perhaps, they retain a 
sufficient portion of their original meaning to enable the 
grammarian to decide when they are properly used. 

Will denotes power, inclination, and determination to act, 
and if these exist in the agent, we say, — I will, thou wilt, 
he will. The inclination and resolution in the second per- 
son, and the third, are either known or presumed, as — wilt 
thou ? — yes, I know thou wilt. 

But if the power, inclination, or determination of the 
agent, be subject to the will of another, the agent is spoken 
to, or of, as being impelled to the performance of the action 
without any reference to his will, as — thou shalt ; he shall. 

Ex. — "Nature has willed that its parts shall always 
remain subordinate to the whole." 

Here, will (used as a regular verb,) implies determination; 
shall, employed as an auxiliary, implies compulsion. 

The same distinction obtains when we speak in the first 
person, as — " I shall die." Here the state or condition is 
supposed to be inevitable, not voluntary. 

Shall and will are also used to denote intention, as — I 
shall go to town to-morrow, and my wife will accompany 
me : — or shall accompany me, if by chance the will of the 
husband predominates. Hence, shall and will, in many 
cases, seem to promise and foretel, as — I will assist him; 
they shall perish. 



PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 121 

Shall. 
INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

I shall We shall 

Thou shalt Ye or you shall 

He, she, or it shall They shall 

Past Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

I should We should 

Thou shouldst Ye or you should 

He, she, or it should They should 

" This verb," says Dr. Crombie, " is unquestionably a deri- 
vative from the Saxon sceal, / owe, or J ought, and was origi- 
nally of the same import. ' I shall/ denoted 'it is my duty/ 
and was precisely synonymous with debeo in Latin. Chaucer 
says, ' The faith I shall to God/ that is, ' the faith I owe to 
God/ ' Thou shalt not kill/ ' or thou oughtest not to kill/ In 
this sense shall is a present tense, and denoted present duty 
or obligation. But as all duties, and all commands, though 
present in respect to their obligation and authority, must be 
future in regard to their execution, so by a natural transition, 
observable in most languages, this word, significant of present 
duty came to be a note of future time." 

In the learned languages, and many of the modern, the 
present duty, will, or obligation, is united with the contin- 
gent attribute, and when the verbs are thus united they 
constitute what are called the future and conditional tenses 
of verbs; but in the English the obligation which exists and 
is present, is denoted by shall, and the performance of the 
duty, which is future, is expressed by the root of the verb, 
whether the verbal noun representing such performance be 
expressed or understood. " The faith I shall to God," is 
equivalent to, the faith I ought to render to God. The 
obligation is present, but the performance of the duty is to 
come. 



122 PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE, 

Ought. 
INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

I ought We ought 

Thou oughtest Ye or you ought 

He, she, or it ought They ought 

Ought implies present duty or obligation. The past tense 
is denoted by the past participle of the principal attribute, 
as — I ought to have written. 

The preposition cannot be omitted after this word, as, in 
those cases where the meaning of the auxiliary is less deter- 
minate, we connot say, " I ought write/' I ought have 
written ; but I ought to write, I ought to have written. 
On the other hand the auxiliary should, will not admit the 
preposition, because no definite meaning belongs to the 
word. I should to write, I should to have written, are as 
ungrammatical, as — I ought write, I ought have written. 

We cannot agree with Dr. Crombie, who assigns a past 
tense to this verb. Past duty is denoted by the regular 
verb, " I owed;" but ought, though derived from owe, always 
denotes an existing duty or obligation, whether the power to 
discharge that duty exists or not, for that which has not been 
paid is still owing, though the possibility of paying be hopeless. 
" I ought to have been more grateful to my benefactor while 
he lived, and I ought now to observe his precepts." Ought, 
in the first member of this sentence denotes, an existing duty 
unperformed; in the last clause an existing obligation. The 
duty and the obligation are spoken of as still having exis- 
tence, though the opportunity to be grateful is past, and the 
observance of the benefactor's precepts is yet to come. 

Let. 
Let is a perfect verb, though often used as an auxiliary in 
imperfect sentences, as — let me depart, that is, I desire 
you to let me depart. 




RTEGUIiAll, IMU-. 



PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 123 

Must. 

Must implies necessity to do, or to suffer, any action or 
state, and always denotes the existence of such necessity ; it 
cannot, therefore, be applied to the past or future existence 
of the idea the word represents. 

Conjugation of Verbs. 

" To conjugate, in its usual acceptation, means to join 
together, and, as used by grammarians, it means to place 
under one view all the variations in the form of the verb, 
beginning with the infinitive mood, and ending with the 
participle." — Cobbett. 

The attribute usually chosen by grammarians to exemplify 
the modifications of the verb is " love." * Why this desire 
has been so pertinaciously adhered to would be a more diffi- 
cult question if it were not well known that most English 
grammars are derived from the Latin, and are founded on 
the plan of Lowth's Introduction. Some writers, how- 
ever, have questioned the propriety of this trite illustration, 
and among these is Mr. Brenan, who, in his useful little 
work on Composition, remarks, — " I cannot forbear saying 
a word upon the subject of the verb, — ' to love,' of which 
all grammar writers, except Mr. Cobbett, are so fond. As 
it is of the greatest importance that things should as nearly 
as possible have their right names and functions, especially 
when we undertake instruction, this word is a most unfor- 
tunate selection, and, I am certain, that it much retards the 
improvement of the pupil. But grammarians too often work 
mechanically, not intellectually ; would they but mentally 
consider this word, through all its moods and tenses, its 
inefficiency, nay, its absurdity, as an explicator, must be 
manifest." 

Regarding affirmation as the essential characteristic of the 
verb, it will not be expected that we shall give what is called 
a complete conjugation. The present tense, and the past, 
are the only modifications admitted by grammarians to 

* Love is u passion or emotion, and, therefore, to love is not an appro- 
priate word to convey a distinct notion of an active transitive verb. 



124 PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE, 

possess the verbal character,* because these alone corres- 
pond with the definition of a verb. 

A verb is called regular when the past tense and the past 
participle are formed by adding d, or ed, to the name of the 
verb, as — move, moved, command, commanded. 

The verb to Move. 
INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

Singular Number. Plural Number. 

I move We move 

Thou movest Ye or you move 

He moves or moveth They move 

Past Tense. 

Singular Number. Plural Number. 

I moved We moved 

Thou movedst Ye or you moved 

He moved They moved 

Present Participle. Past Participle. 

Moving Moved 

Infinitive or Verbal Noun. 
To Move. 

The variation of the verb, on account of number and 
person, obtains only in the second and third persons of the 
two tenses of the indicative; but as the pronoun thou is 
seldom used, and the formal modification of the third person 
of the present tense is rarely attended to, this property of 
the verb may be considered as pertaining exclusively to the 
third person singular of the present tense ; an exception that 
is scarcely worth the parade of the conjugation of persons. 

The verb " to move/' like many other verbs in the English 
language, is sometimes employed as an active and some- 
times as a neuter verb. 

* " As the verb essentially expresses affirmation, without which there could 
be no communication of sentiment, it has been hence considered as the prin- 
cipal part of speech, and was, therefore, called, by the ancient grammarians, 
verb, or the word by way of eminence." — Crombie. 



PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 125 

Number, person, mood, and tense, are the principal 
accidents of a verb. Number relates to the unity or to the 
plurality of the subject to which the attribute is ascribed, 
as — he moves; they move. The distinction of person indi- 
cates that the attribute pertains either to the speaker, to 
the person spoken to, or to the person or thing spoken of, 
as — I move ; thou movest ; he, she, or it moves. But as the 
accidents of number and person are not, strictly speaking, 
properties of the verbal attribute, this brief notice of them 
here will be sufficient. Mood and tense will require more 
attentive consideration. 

Moods. 

Mood, or mode, is a particular form of a verbal attri- 
bute, showing the manner in which the being, action, or 
state of being is represented in reference to its subject. 

The verbal attribute is that term of the predicate 
which denotes some state or action pertaining to a noun ; 
in fact, all those words which (when the existence of the attri- 
bute they stand for is affirmed,) are capable of admitting the 
force or sign of affirmation. 

A verbal attribute may be variously predicated. It may 
be spoken of indefinitely. It may be commanded or desired. 
Its existence may be actual, or it may be predicated as 
possible or contingent. These circumstances, when included 
in the predicate, have given rise to the several moods, with 
which grammarians have encumbered the English conjugation. 

The modes of a verb are generally comprehended in the five 
following: — the infinitive, the imperative, the indica- 
tive, the potential, and the subjunctive. These, it will 
be necessary to examine separately, in order to understand 
in what respect the attribute differs in its several modifica- 
tions, and how far it is entitled to retain its character as a 
verb. 

The Infinitive Mood. 

" Of all the points," says Mr. Tooke, " which grammarians 
endeavour to shuffle over, there is none in which they do it 



126 PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 

more grossly than in this of the infinitive." Having made 
this charge, Mr. Tooke promised to explain the nature of the 
verb, but he afterwards thought fit to decline the task, and 
by this great omission in his theory has left the structure of 
language, which ought to have been the principal object of 
his investigations, incomplete. We must turn, therefore, to 
a less popular writer for information concerning these attri- 
butes. 

"The Stoics," says Mr. Harris, "in their grammatical in- 
quiries, had the infinitive in such esteem, that they held this 
alone to be the genuine verb, a name which they denied to 
all the other modes. Their reasoning was, they considered 
the true verbal character to be contained simple and un- 
mixed in the infinitive only. Thus, the infinitive ' to walk/ 
means simply that energy, and nothing more." 

If the essence of the verb consisted in "being" and 
" doing," this opinion of the Stoics would be correct, for it 
is evident that many substantive nouns are used to denote 
the names of actions,* by the simple addition of the prepo- 
sition "to," which, according to Mr. Tooke's derivation, 
means act, and conveys that notion when connected with a 
substantive noun. But the idea represented by the substan- 
tive noun, and that represented by the verbal noun, are 
altogether distinct ideas. Thus, " to breathe," denotes an 
act; but "breath" denotes that portion of the air which is 
breathed. "To plant" means to fix in the ground; "a 
plant " means that which is fixed in the ground. 

The infinitive, then, is the name of an action or state of 
being. Its modifications denote that action or state of 
being as conjoined with a noun, and when the modifications 
of the attribute do not imply affirmation, they are called 
participles, or participial adjectives. 

Whenever the infinitive mood is employed in a sentence 
it denotes an action or state of being indefinitely, or it 
implies the existence of the attribute at some future period. 
If the action or state of being be spoken of indefinitely, 

* Mr. Tooke makes no other distinction between the verbal noun and 
the substantive than what is implied in the preposition. " The word to," 
says Mr. Tooke, " is merely added to distinguish the infinitive from the 



PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 127 

without any distinct reference to its existence, the infinitive 
represents the notion which we form of the verbal attribute, 
apart from any subject, as — to walk is pleasant. 

In this case it is evident that the verbal abstract noun 
does not represent an act which has existed, or does exist, 
but it refers merely to the abstract notion of an action or 
state of being, which, from experience and recollection, is 
affirmed to be pleasant. 

But if the infinitive be connected with the primary attri- 
bute as its object, the future existence of the attribute, 
denoted by the infinitive, is predicated in connection with 
the actual or past existence of the principal attribute. 

Ex. — We are able to predict, with certainty, many of the 
changes which are to happen in time to come. 

The prediction here indefinitely referred to is not an act 
of the mind that has taken place, but an act that we have 
the power hereafter to exercise. The other infinitives in 
the example clearly denote the future existence of the attri- 
butes or states, which they are intended to represent. For 
what is to happen has not taken place, and what is to come 
has not yet arrived. 



The Imperative Mood. 

The view which has been taken of the infinitive will assist 
to explain the nature of the imperative mood. The verb in 
this mood is the attribute whose existence is desired, com- 
manded, permitted, or intreated; but the verb which desires, 
commands, permits, or intreats, is generally understood, as 
— depart ye, i.e. I command ye to depart. Listen to me, i.e. 
I request you to listen to me. 

Those grammarians who have justly considered the impe- 
rative as part only of a declaratory sentence, would have 
experienced no difficulty in proving the truth of their 
opinions, had they considered the verbal noun, when em- 
ployed as the object of an assertion, as always implying the 
future existence of the attribute denoted by the verbal noun. 
It is not what is called the imperative mood of the verb 
which commands or intreats, for that is what is commanded 



128 PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 

or intreated, but it is the tone or emphasis which supplies 
the place of that verb which denotes the attribute pertaining 
to the nominative. Hence, the imperative mood does not 
always correspond with its name, for it sometimes petitions, 
in the most suppliant tone, as— forgive us our sins ; have 
mercy. 

Yet the imperative is a form of the verb distinguishable 
from the indicative. In the expressions — 'Love thy neigh- 
bour as thyself," "thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself," 
the same duty is inforced, but the manner of inforcing it 
differs. The first form is imperative, the last contains an 
assertion; the sentence is therefore declaratory, and pertains 
to the indicative mood. 



The Indicative Mood. 

The indicative mood is that form of the verb, or verbal 
attribute, which includes the sign of affirmation: — it declares 
the attribute to belong to the subject, as — he is wise ; she 
moves; they stand. 

The affirmation is included in those forms only of the 
verbal attribute which declare the present or the past exist- 
ence of the attribute, as— she weeps ; they smiled. 

When the future existence of an attribute is predicated, 
the force of affirmation is transferred to the auxiliary. For 
the will, power, or obligation, " to be," or " to do," may 
exist, while the attribute (which, in fact, is the object of the 
will, power, or obligation,) is necessarily contingent, and 
consequently pertains to future existences. Still, the 
auxiliary, and the object connected with it, are so closely 
allied, and, in general, the meaning of the former is so far 
obscured, that it and its object are usually considered as one 
attribute, and are in many languages expressed by a single 
term, as — Ibo, I will go, i.e. I will to go. In this declara- 
tion, " to go" is the object of the existing will or determina- 
tion, and the will to do that, denoted by the principal verb, 
is the immediate attribute of the subject. 

Mr. Harris, speaking of this property of auxiliary verbs, 
remarks, " The infinitive naturally coalesces with all those 



PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 129 

verbs that denote any tendency, desire, or volition of the 
soul, but not readily with others. The reason is, that 
though different actions may unite in the same subject, and 
therefore be coupled together (as, when we say — he walked 
and discoursed), yet the actions, notwithstanding, remain 
separate and distinct. But it is not so with respect to 
volitions and actions. Here the coalescence is often so 
intimate that the volition is unintelligible, till the action be 
expressed, — I desire; I am willing; I want. — What? The 
sentences, we see, are defective and imperfect; we must 
help them, then, by infinitives, which express the proper 
actions to which they tend, — I desire to read; I am willing 
to learn; I want to see. Thus, is the whole rendered com- 
plete, as well in sentiment as in syntax/'* 

The indicative mood, by laying aside assertion, quits the 
name of indicative, and may, with propriety, be considered 
a distinct mood of the verb. Though the form of the indi- 
cative is not changed in asking a question, yet the place of 
the verbal attribute denotes that the essential characteristic 
of a verb is wanting, and the sentence is consequently 
incomplete. It may be remarked that, in many cases, 
position serves the purpose of modification: thus, a noun 
in the objective case is known by its place; and a verb 
derived from a substantive is distinguished from the latter 
by its position, in reference to the noun or pronoun that 
governs it. 

The Potential Mood. 

The potential mood is ascertained by the meaning of the 
auxiliaries employed in connection with the principal attri- 
bute. Thus, when any action or state of existence is con- 
sidered as possible, and not contingent, the auxiliaries may, 
can, might, and could, denote the power implied by those 
words; but when the opportunity of doing or being is spoken 
of as past, the auxiliaries to have and to he denote the past 
existence of the power implied by the words might and could, 
and the past participle of the principal verb is employed, as 

* Hermes, book i, chap. 8. 
K 



130 PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 

if the action or state of being had been completed, as — he 
might have prevented the mischief; their lives might have 
been saved. In no case, however, in this mood, is the actual 
existence of the principal attribute predicated. 

It has been already observed that the auxiliaries are 
frequently employed to modify an assertion, and, losing the 
force of their original signification, they become little else 
than adverbs. ''Those verbs," says a modern writer, 
" which, in course of time, are used as auxiliaries, though 
originally as significant as any other verbs, lose something 
of their distinctive character; so that if the fuller form 
happen to disappear from a language, the corrupted auxiliary 
presents anomalies which it is not easy for the philologist to 
explain. This difficulty is increased by the circumstance 
that verbs used as auxiliaries generally throw off much of the 
distinctive meaning which they originally possessed." 



The Subjunctive Mood. 

The subjunctive mood implies that the existence of the 
attribute is spoken of conditionally. 

" When the thing expressed by the verb depends on 
something else going before or coming after it, whether the 
concessive conjunctions, if, though, unless, except, whether, 
&c. be used or not, the st or s of the second or third person 
singular is dropped at the end of the verb, that is, the verb 
is used in the same form as in the infinitive mood; thus, 
if any member absent himself he shall forfeit." 

In this example, it will be observed, that something is 
asserted to depend upon the act of any member absenting 
himself ; therefore the verb is employed without the usual 
termination, "and the reason of this is," says Mr. Lewis, 
" that there is an auxiliary verb understood," — if any member 
shall absent himself. 

The reason here assigned, by this writer, for the change of 
termination, to denote contingency, does not explain why 
the verb or attribute spoken of contingently should be of 
the same form as the infinitive mood; but if that mood 
denotes a future action, the difficulty is at once explained, 



PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 131 

for an action or state which exists cannot be spoken of as 
contingent, in whatever way it may be modified by a con- 
junction. 

In general, it may be observed, that when the thing 
spoken of is certain, whether the verb is preceded by a con- 
junction or not, the indicative form of the verb should be 
employed, — " though he were a son." Here there is no doubt 
expressed, and consequently were ought to have been was. 
I shall overtake him although he runs. Such assertions, 
though put with a concessive term, are not intended to con- 
vey doubt, the facts are considered as admitted. 

Tenses. 

In Mr. Locke's Essay on the Human Understanding, the 
reader is informed, that a great man being asked what time 
was, answered, Si non rogas intelligo. 

If any attempt were here made to demonstrate that there 
is such a thing as present time, it is probable that the proofs 
and arguments would be about as well understood as are 
the ingenious contrivances of those who have endeavoured 
to prove the contrary ; but it is fortunate for the greater part 
of mankind that such inquiries are as useless as they are 
inexplicable. Man may as reasonably imagine that he has 
the power to stay the planets in their course, as to presume 
that he has a mind capable of forming an adequate concep- 
tion of extension, or of the modes of duration. 

But it is not with the duration of time, but with the 
duration of transitory beings and their attributes, that the 
grammarian has to do. 

The tenses of verbs denote the actual or past existence of 
attributes, in reference to the subjects to which such attri- 
butes are said to belong. 

In English there are three tenses of verbs. 

The actual existence of an attribute is expressed by the 
forms of the present tense, and present participle. 

The past existence of the attribute is signified by the past 
tense, and the past participle. 

The future or contingent existence is implied by the 
infinitive mood, used in connection with a finite verb. 

k 2 



132 PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 

In order to define, more accurately, the modes of existence 
in relation to the subject, or objects connected with it, the 
compound tenses have been constructed. The auxiliaries 
employed for this purpose modify the assertion, in reference 
to the existence of the attribute, but time is as inseparable 
from existence, as form is from substance ; hence, when the 
existence of an attribute is predicated or affirmed, the notion 
.of time is necessarily implied. 



Of the different kinds of Verbs. 

Verbs are of three kinds — active, passive, and neuter ; 
and, as regards their modifications, they are further distin- 
guished as either regular or irregular. Some few verbs are 
also called impersonal or defective, because they are not em- 
ployed in all the variations of moods, tenses, numbers, and 
persons, incident to a regular verb. 

A verb is called active transitive when the act of producing 
the attribute or state is attributed to the subject, as — the 
gunpowder splits the rock ; the master punishes the scholar. 

A verb is called active intransitive when the attribute itself, 
and not the act of producing it, is attributed to the subject, 
as — the horse trots ; the man walks. 

A verb is considered neuter when the attribute denotes an 
inactive state of being, or when no agent is referred to, as 
producing such state of being, as — he stands unmoved ; they 
lie in wait. 

These distinctions may be rendered more evident by a few 
examples. 

To build is an active transitive verb, and has properly 
no corresponding neuter in our language, " The house was 
building when the wall fell/' is much better expressed by 
employing the French idiom, " The house was being built 
when the wall fell." 

To lay is an active transitive verb, and denotes that act 
by which the attribute or state of being implied by the word 
is produced in an object. 

Ex. — The reader lays the book on the table, or laid the 
book on the table. 



PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 133 

The passive form of the verb denotes that the subject or 
nominative has been acted upon, as —the book is laid on the 
table, or was laid on the table. 

To lie is a verb neuter, and merely denotes the state of 
the subject, without referring to an agent as the cause of 
that state. 

Ex. — The book lies on the table, or the book lay on the 
table. 

The past participle of "to lay," is laid; the past participle 
of "to lie," is lain. 

The verb " to move" has an active signification when the 
cause of motion in an object is attributed to an agent, as the 
producer of such motion, as — " the wind moves the vessel." 
Here the word "moves" denotes the act of moving, and 
not the motion produced, since it is not the existence of the 
motion, but the existence of the act which is predicated. 
But the verb has a neuter signification when motion itself is 
attributed to the subject, as — " the vessel moves." In this 
case the attribute or state of existence, signified by the verb, 
pertains to the vessel, and the verb is called intransitive. 

The verb is said to be passive when the object acted 
upon, is made the nominative or subject of assertion, as — 
"the vessel is moved." The attribute denoted by the past 
participle " moved," represents that state of being which 
results, or has resulted, from the agency of a power acting 
upon the vessel. The vessel is therefore spoken of as a 
passive subject, receiving its attribute from an external agent, 
and the state of being (expressed by the participle " moved,") 
is not regarded as simply pertaining to the vessel, and origi- 
nating in itself, but as produced in the vessel by an efficient 
agent, either expressed or implied. 

Ex. — The vessel is moved by the wind. 

The verbal noun " to move," therefore, may either denote 
an act producing the attribute signified by the word, or it 
may denote the attribute itself, without referring to the 
agent which produced it. Lastly, the attribute resulting 
from the act of moving, may also be predicated as pertaining 
to a passive subject. Hence, the different kinds of verbs 
have been denominated, by grammarians, active, passive, and 
neuter. The passive, it is evident, cannot be said to belong 



134 PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 

to the English language, for the phrases which constitute 
the passive verb differ from the neuter verb only in the 
manner of signification of the past participle, used in con- 
nection with the substantive verb. 

Verbs are called irregular when the modifications of the 
past tense and the past participle are not formed by adding 
d, or ed to the infinitive, as — am, was, been; drink, drank, 
drunk. 

Lists of the irregular verbs may be found in almost every 
grammar. 

A verb is called defective when it is not employed through 
all the forms of a complete conjugation. 

In concluding our observations on the verb, we shall 
briefly revert to the cause of the difficulty which many expe- 
rience in comprehending the nature of this important part 
of speech, and at the same time we shall offer a few remarks 
on the origin of the three auxiliary verbs, — to be, to have, and 
to do. 

It has been already observed that the difficulty experienced 
by the learner to comprehend the nature of a verb has arisen 
from making, "being and doing," it essential characteristics; 
and at the same time confining the character of the verb to 
those modifications only of the verbal noun which predicate 
"being or doing," thus contradicting in practice what had 
been established in theory. Nor are those who make affir- 
mation the essential property of a verb more consistent, for 
they still regard the predicate as the verb, and make no dis- 
tinction between the word which means " being and doing/ 5 
and the sign which attributes " being and doing," to the sub- 
ject. 

If the essence of the verb consisted in " being and doing," 
and not in the power of predicating these and other attri- 
butes, then the words called verbs must, under every 
modification, retain their essential characteristic ; but since 
this is not allowed to be the case, even by those grammarians 
who make " being and doing" the distinguishing properties 
of a verb, it will be necessary to consider these words as 
mere attributes, even in cases where affirmation is expressed 
by the attribute. 

The verb is said to have derived its importance from the 



PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 135 

necessity of its presence in a proposition or sentence; but 
whether we regard the verb as a mere sign, uniting the 
predicate to its subject, or as combined with the predicate, 
and implying ''being and doing," it is not in either case 
more essential to the formation of a sentence, than is the 
subject noun, or the term employed to denote " that which 
is said of the noun." But admitting the verb to be the chief 
word in every sentence, the repetition of that fact can in no 
way conduce to the knowledge of the nature of the verb. 

Existence is that attribute which claims precedence of all 
others, since it is essential to the very being of every other 
attribute, it is therefore either expressed or implied in every 
proposition : — expressed, when we say, " God is ;" implied, 
when we say, " the sun rises ;" which means, when resolved, 
" the sun is rising." The verb to be is also used simply as 
the sign of affirmation. In this case it does not suggest the 
notion of existence, but merely affirms, and by this affirma- 
tion unites the predicate to the subject, as — God is good. 

Existence, considered as an attribute, gives rise to the 
notion of pertaining to, hence, the verb to have appears to 
be essentially connected with the primary attribute, and is 
conveniently employed as an auxiliary to complete the com- 
plex modes of existence, as — I have been, he had been. 

Next in importance to the word that denotes possession 
is that which implies acting or doing, and its modification 
to, is employed to impart the signification, either of an act, 
or of a state of being to those attributes hitherto called verbs, 
as — to be, to do, and to suffer. 



Syntax of Verbs. 

Rule I. A verb personal must agree with its nominative 
case in number and person, as — I dislike, thou condemnest, 
he approves, they judge. 

The nominative or subject of a verb may be a noun, pro- 
noun, infinitive mood, or part of a sentence. 

Rule II. When two or more subjects are connected by 
a copulative conjunction, the verb refers to both, and is 
therefore plural. 



136 



PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 



Ex, — " Honour and shame from no condition rise." 
Ex. — " The useful arts improved by science, and 
science itself improved by philosophy, confer power on 
civilized and instructed man, and enable him at once to 
triumph over his fellows, and over nature." 

Rule III. When a disjunctive conjunction connects the 
subjects of a sentence, the verb belongs to one of the sub- 
jects only, and is either singular or plural, the verb being 
governed by the noun or pronoun that is placed nearest to it. 

Ex. — Either they or I am to blame ; — either I or they 
are to blame. 

Ex. — Neither poverty nor riches were injurious to him. 

When two nominatives of different numbers are thus con- 
nected by a disjunctive, the same verb cannot agree with both. 
In this case the preference is commonly given to the plural, 
and the verb belonging to the singular is " understood," as — 
neither {was) poverty, nor were riches injurious to him ; — 
either I (am,) or they are to blame. 

Rule IV. A noun in the singular number, connected by 
a preposition to another noun, whether singular or plural, 
requires the verb to be in the singular. 

Ex. — " The general with all his officers has applied for 
redress." 

In this, and similar examples, grammarians are of opinion 
that the construction requires the plural form of the verb ; 
but a noun in the objective case, governed by a preposition, 
cannot, consistently with the principles of grammar, become 
a part of the nominative, and govern the verb. If this prin- 
ciple were once clearly understood, there would be no difficulty 
in determining the construction of the following sentences : — 

"The king, with the lords and commons, constitute, or 
constitutes, an excellent form of government." 

The side A, with the sides B and C, compose, or com- 
poses, the triangle. 

" My uncle, with his son, was, or were, in town yesterday." 

In all these cases the verb should be singular, but when 
the sense requires that the nouns should be joint subjects to 
the verb, the copulative conjunction ought to be used instead 
of the preposition, and the difficulty would be at once 
removed. 



PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 137 

The sides A, B, and C, form the triangle. 

The kins;, lords, and commons, constitute an excellent 
form of government. 

My uncle and his son were in town yesterday. 

There does not appear to be any difficulty in determining 
whether the verb, in the preceding examples, should be 
singular or plural, nor is it necessary to refer to authority, 
" especially as our most reputable authors use sometimes 
the one and sometimes the other form of expression;" — a 
proof of the insufficiency of referring to " authority," or 
" reputable use," as the standard of propriety in language. 

Rule V. The substantive verb " to be" requires the 
same case after it as before it, as — it is I ; it was he ; you 
believed it to be him. The neuter pronoun "it" means 
"person," as — "you believed the person to be him;" "the 
person was he ;" "the person is I." The pronoun in this 
case may be transposed, and the noun person may be em- 
ployed, instead of the neuter pronoun, as — I am the person; 
but it will be seen that the form of the verb is changed, 
because, although the cases are the same, the subjects differ 
in their manner of signification : this deserves attention, 
because the propriety of the following rule depends upon the 
principle which regulates the construction in this instance. 

Rule VI. A verb placed between two nominatives of 
different numbers agrees with its subject, i.e. with the noun 
that precedes the verb. 

Ex. — His meat was locusts and wild honey. 

Ex, — Death is the wages of sin. 

Ex. — The chief burden is the taxes. 

In these examples the nouns that come before the verbs 
are the subjects, and those that follow the predicates, of the 
sentences. 

Many of the difficulties that occur in determining the 
propriety of anomalous construction, would disappear, if the 
meaning of the word, that gave rise to the exception, were 
attentively examined. In the sentence, " The wages of sin 
is death," the word wages is figuratively employed, but men 
are not hired to commit sin, therefore the term wages is 
inappropriate. " The punishment of sin is death," " the 



138 PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 

consequence of sin is death/' would be more consistent with 
truth and the meaning of the sentence. 

We cannot, with propriety, say, " the wages of sin are 
death," because the misapplication of the term " wages," is 
rendered conspicuous by the collocation, and the mind im- 
mediately perceives the disagreement, between the subject 
and the predicate; but we can say, " Locusts and wild 
honey were his food," " the taxes were the evil," because 
the terms " food," and " evil," are adequate expressions, and 
may be made the subjects, instead of being the predicates of 
the sentences. The verb, however, assumes the form singu- 
lar, to agree with its nominatives in that number, as — his 
food was locusts, — the evil was the taxes. 

Rule VII. When a noun of multitude conveys unity of 
idea, the verb and pronoun should be in the singular. 

Ex. — The army is disbanded. 

Ex. — The assembly is broken up. 

Ex. — The parliament is disolved. 

Rule VIII. When a noun of multitude conveys plu- 
rality of idea, the verb and pronoun should be plural, 

Ex. — Why do the heathen so furiously rage together, 
and why do the people imagine a vain thing. 

The verbs agree with the nouns heathen and people in the 
plural, because those words refer to the individuals, and not 
to the class under which the individuals are comprehended. 

Some grammarians assert that it is optional whether we 
say, " the people is mad," or " the people are mad ;" — they, 
however, acknowledge that the latter construction is more 
elegant. People is a noun, which is seldom, if ever, con- 
strued in the singular. 

Rule IX. Two or more nouns representing the same 
person or thing require the verb to be in the singular. 

Ex. — That able scholar and grammarian has been refuted. 

Rule X. A verb active governs the noun that follows it, 
and the noun or pronoun is said to be in the objective case. 

Ex. — The master punishes the scholar; he corrects him 
for obstinacy or negligence. 

Rule XI. When two verbs come together, the latter is 
in the infinitive mood; but the sign of the infinitive mood 



PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 139 

is omitted after the verbs bid, dare, need, make, see, hear, 
feel, and let, as — he bade me do it; I heard him say it. 

A verb may be known by admitting the preposition to 
before it, or by making sense with the personal pronouns, 
as — to come, I come, thou comest, they come. 



Illustration of Verbs. 

" England is the worst country a proud man can exhibit 
himself in. A man may strut in Spain, vapour in France, or 
kick and cuff the vulgar, as he likes, in Russia ; he may sit 
erect in his palanquin in India, without dropping his eyes 
upon the earth he moves over ; but if he carries his head in 
the air here, and expects the crowd to make way for him, he 
will soon run foul of somebody that will make him repent of 
his stateliness. Pride, then, it seems, not only exposes a 
man to contempt, but puts him in danger ; it is also a very 
expensive frolic, if he keeps it up, as it should be kept, for 
what signifies his being proud if there is not somebody always 
present to exercise his pride upon? He must, therefore, of 
necessity have a set of humble cousins and toad-eaters about 
him, and as such cattle cannot be had for nothing in this 
country, he must pay them according to the value of their 
services; common trash may be had at a common price, but 
clever fellows know their own consequence, and will stand 
out upon terms. If Nebuchadnezzar had not had "all 
people, nations, and languages," at his command, he might 
have called till he was hoarse before any one would have come 
to worship his image in the plain of Dura. Let the proud 
man take notice, withal, that Nebuchadnezzar's image was 
made of gold, and if he expects to be worshipped by all 
people, after this fashion, and casts himself in the same 
mould, he must also cast himself in the same metal." — 
Cumberland. 



CHAPTER IX 



ADVERBS. 

" And here it is worth while to observe, how the same thing, participating 
the same essence, assumes different grammatical forms, from its different 
relations. For example, suppose it should be asked how differ honest, 
honestly, and honesty. The answer is, they are in essence the same ; 
but they differ, inasmuch as honest is the attributive of a substantive ; 
honestly, of a verb ; and honesty, being divested of these its attri- 
butive relations, assumes the power of a substantive, so as to stand by 
itself." — Harris. 

An adverb is a word or phrase added to verbs, adjectives, 
or adverbs, to increase or diminish the signification of those 
parts of speech, as— he rides well; a truly benevolent 
mind; a very small quantity ; more virtuously inclined. 

Mr. Tooke's observations on the nature of prepositions 
may be strictly applied to adverbs : — 

" As the necessity of the article (or of some equivalent 
invention) follows from the impossibility of having in lan- 
guage a distinct name or particular term for each particular 
individual idea, so does the necessity of the preposition (or 
some equivalent invention) follow from the impossibility of 
having in language a distinct complex term for each different 
collection of ideas which we may have occasion to put 
together in discourse. The addition or subtraction of any 
one idea to or from a collection makes it a different collec- 
tion ; and (if there were degrees of impossibility) it is still 
more impossible to use in language a different and distinct 
complex term for each different and distinct collection of 
ideas, than it is to use a distinct particular term for each 
particular and individual idea. To supply, therefore, the 
place of the complex terms, which are wanting in a language, 
is the preposition employed ; by whose aid complex terms 



PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 141 

are prevented from being infinite or too numerous, and are 
used only for those collections of ideas which we have most 
frequently occasion to mention in discourse ; and this end 
is obtained in the most simple manner; for having occasion, 
in communication, to mention a collection of ideas, for 
which there is no one single complex term in the language, 
we either take that complex term which includes the greatest 
number, though not all, of the ideas we would communicate, 
or else we take that complex term which includes all and the 
fewest ideas more than those we would communicate, and 
then by the help of the preposition we either make up the 
deficiency in the one case, or retrench the superfluity in the 
other." 

The use of the adverb is here clearly pointed out by Mr. 
Tooke. The following passage from Dr. Watts will show 
how this part of speech originates, and in what respect it 
differs from an adjective: — 

" As modes belong to substances, so there are some also 
that are but the modes of other modes ; for though they 
subsist in and by the substance, as the original subject of 
them, yet they are properly and directly attributed to some 
mode of that substance. Motion is the mode of a body, but 
the swiftness or slowness of it, or its direction to the north 
or south, are but modes of motion. Walking is the mode 
or manner of a man or beast, but walking gracefully implies 
a manner or mode superadded to that action." 

When modes, therefore, are predicated, as subsisting in 
and by a substance, they are called adjectives, for they are 
no longer distinct objects, presented to the mind, and they 
thus lose their essential character as nouns, as — a good 
action ; an angry man ; modest behaviour. 

But when a mode or quality is attributed to the mode of a 
noun, as — the horse runs swiftly, or to the mode of a mode, 
as — he writes very correctly, the word is called an adverb. 

The difference between an adverb and an adjective is this : 
— the adjective modifies the noun, but the adverb modifies 
the adjective, or other attribute. Thus, the adverb corres- 
ponds exactly with Mr. Tooke's explanation of the use of 
prepositions, for when an adjective or other attributive word 
will not convey the exact notion of the quality or mode 



142 PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 

predicated of a noun, the deficiency of meaning is supplied 
by an adverb, and if the word so employed be insufficient 
for the purpose, it may itself be modified by another adverb, 
to complete the signification. By this contrivance in lan- 
guage the want of a complex term for every complex idea is 
supplied. 

Hence some adverbs will admit degrees of comparison, for 
as certain qualities, which are attributed to nouns, may be 
more or less, when compared with other nouns, possessing 
the like quality, and thus require adverbs to denote the 
degree, so adverbs may require other adverbs to express 
more fully the degree of the quality or circumstance repre- 
sented by the principal adverb, as — often, oftener, or more 
often, oftenest or most often. 

A preposition joined to a noun, and thus restricting its 
signification, does, with the noun, often supply the place of 
an adverb, as — in fine ; by degrees ; in part ; &c. These 
phrases are equivalent in meaning to the adverbs — finally, 
gradually, partly. 

Ex. — " We see but in part, and we know but in part, and 
therefore it is no wonder we conclude not right from our 
partial views." — Locke. 

The difference between the adverbial phrase, or extended 
adverb, (if we may so call it,) and the adjective may be clearly 
seen in the foregoing example : — The phrase " in part," qua- 
lifies the verb; the adjective partial directly qualifies the noun. 

Adverbs are signs of complex ideas, and may be resolved 
into more simple terms ; but this method of explaining away 
the parts of speech is totally inconsistent with the science of 
grammar, which should teach us to understand the nature 
and use of words as they exist, and not as they might exist, 
if men thought fit to define more accurately by words their 
complex ideas. Many words, besides adverbs, are so con- 
trived as to express, compendiously, in one word, what 
would, in a definition, have required two or more terms. 
This is the consequence of the composition of ideas, and 
very different from that kind of abbreviation, which is used 
merely for the sake of dispatch, for by using an adverb, 
instead of an equivalent phrase, ambiguity may often be 
prevented. 



PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 143 

Ex. — " Somerville is the only one who has written on this 
subject to be understood." 

Who, we ask, would not prefer " written intelligibly on 
this subject V 

Again, the adverb bravely may he an abbreviation of brave - 
like, and mean in a brave manner ; but the word is differently 
attributed in its form, as an adverb, and becomes a distinct 
part of speech, from its being joined to an attribute, (the 
verb,) as — he fought bravely, instead of, to a noun, as — in a 
brave or bravelike manner. 

The termination ly, by which so many adverbs in English 
are distinguished from their corresponding adjectives, is sup- 
posed to be a corruption of like, but whatever might have 
formerly been the meaning attached to this syllable, it is 
now but little attended to. It seems to be used only to 
direct the mind to the manner in which the word is to be 
applied, and to show that the intention is to modify an attri- 
bute, which, by itself, would not otherwise sufficiently express 
the quality, action, or state, attributed to the noun, as — " a 
truly good man;" "the horse ran swiftly;" "the patient 
slept soundly " 

The sentence in which Mr. Tooke contends for the signi- 
fication of this syllable contains three adverbs, formed from 
adjectives by the addition of ly, none of which appear to 
have any reference to the meaning originally implied by this 
abbreviation. 

Ex. — "All adverbs ending in ly are sufficiently under- 
stood, the termination being only the word like corrupted, 
and the corruption so much the more easily and certainly 
discovered, as the termination remains more pure and dis- 
tinguishable in the other sister languages." 

In addition to those adverbs already noticed by italics, the 
word only occurs in the last example, and may be classed 
among the rest; for though Mr. Tooke has derived only 
from one-like, few persons now attach to the word that 
signification. 

Hitherto we have considered adverbs as qualifying only 
adjectives, verbs, and other adverbs; but we have now to 
submit to the reader a few examples, from which it may 



144 PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 

perhaps appear that adverbs qualify every part of speech but 
the noun and pronoun. 

Ex. — " Let us, my dear James, get well through this 
letter." — Cobbett. 

In this sentence the adverb well qualifies the preposition 
through, and these words combined qualify the verb "to 
get." 

The expressions quite through, nearly through, completely 
through, sufficiently prove that the relation denoted by the 
word through will admit of various modifications ; but those 
who still doubt the propriety of attributing an adverb to a 
preposition need only compare the verbs '.' to get well/' " to 
grow well," '.' to write well," and they cannot fail to perceive 
that well, in these examples, qualifies the verb ; but not so 
in the example from Mr. Cobbett, for to " get well through 
this letter," would then imply that his own and his son's 
recovery were to be accomplished by that means. 

Ex. — " It treats merely of etymology and syntax." — 
Grant. 

The adverb, in this example, qualifiesthe preposition of, — 
" It treats merely of or concerning etymology and syntax." 

Ex. — " We too often charge that upon the wicked con- 
trivance and premeditated malice of a neighbour, which 
arose merely from ignorance." — Watts. 

Here the verb is not qualified but the noun through a 
preposition. If the position of the adverb be changed it 
will assume the character of an adjective, and the termina- 
tion ly will be unnecessary ; the sentence will have the same 
meaning, though perhaps more clearly and forcibly expressed, 
— " That which arose from mere ignorance." 

Ex. — " He went over sea for none other errand but to 
see Flanders, and to ride out one summer in those countries ; 
and having one in his company that told, by the way, many 
strange things of the pilgrimage, he thought we would go 
somewhat out of his way," &c. 

The first out, in this example, immediately qualifies the 
verb; the second out qualifies the preposition of, and is itself 
qualified by the adverb somewhat; these words joined to the 
noun and its definitive qualify, as a phrase, the verb "to go," 



PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 145 

i.e. he thought he would somewhat deviate to see these 
strange sights, 

Ex. — " The first may be easily obtained from almost any 
of the common rudiments of that language, under the direc- 
tion of a judicious master, but the latter can only be collected 
from conversation/' — Dr. Ash. 

The adverb easily qualifies the participle "obtained;" 
almost qualifies the definitive "any;" but the adverb only 
should stand before the preposition " from," and through 
that word qualify the noun, — " can be collected only from 
conversation," for the author did not intend to say that it 
could be nothing more than collected, but that conversation 
was the only source from which it could be collected. 

Ex. — n I mean only such pleasures as arise originally from 
sight." — Addison. 

The adverb only qualifies the definitive such; the adverb 
originally is perhaps redundant; as it stands it qualifies the 
noun, and denotes that " sight" is the original source whence 
such pleasures arise. 

Ex. — " Some books are to be studied, others only to be 
referred to occasionally, as dictionaries, cyclopaedias, &c, 
and others to be read merely for amusement." — Jennings. 

If the preposition for be admitted to be a substitute for 
some more significant term, the adverb may qualify the term 
referred to by the preposition, as — merely to obtain or derive 
amusement, otherwise the noun is qualified through the pre- 
position, as — other books are to be read for mere amusement; 
though this may not seem to convey the precise meaning 
of the author, it is no doubt what he intended to express, 
i.e. "books to be read to obtain amusement, and nothing 
else." 

Ex. — Tn the present instance, merely for convenience, 
reference will be continually made to the English transla- 
tion of Telemachus. 

In this example the adverb qualifies the preposition for, 
and refers to the noun, •* convenience," as in the second 
example. 

Ex. — " Theism can only be opposed to polytheism." 

This sentence has been corrected by Dr. Blair, who places 
the adverb before the preposition to, " only to polytheism." 



146 PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 

Ex. — "This latter sound is only tolerable in colloquial 
pronunciation, and then only when used as a preposition." 
: — Walker. 

The first only should stand before the preposition " in," — 
" only in colloquial pronunciation." In denotes the relation 
of place by referring to the time when the sound may be used, 
i.e. in or during colloquial pronunciation. The adverb then 
also refers to the preposition, " and then only when used 
as a preposition." This example, if attentively considered, 
will convince any one that adverbs are sometimes used to 
qualify or restrict the meaning of prepositions. 

But it does not, however, follow that an adverb placed 
before a preposition always belongs to it. In the following 
example the adverb does not qualify the relation, but limits 
the difference between common discourse and music. 

Ex. — " Common discourse differs from music only in the 
number of sounds," i.e. the number of sounds is the only 
difference. The adverb obtains its place for the sake of em- 
phasis, or to avoid ambiguity, for if the author had said 
" only differs," it might mean " differs, and nothing more," 
which is not the meaning of the writer. 

Ex. — " I am only speaking of what they should do, who 
would deal fairly with their own minds." — Locke. 

Here the adverb should be placed before the preposition, 
i.e. only of, or concerning, what they should do. 

Ex. — Persons " who do not read merely with the intention 
of killing time." — Campbell. — i.e. merely having that in- 
tention, or with the mere intention of killing time. 

Ex. — " Such roots as have been naturalized in the form of 
entire or separate words, have been adopted into the lan- 
guage without almost any change." — M'Culloch. 

The adverb almost qualifies the definitive any. There are 
few readers perhaps who would not prefer the position of 
the adverb before the preposition; " almost without any 
change ;" with scarcely any change, is the preferable phra- 
seology. 

Ex. — " Our inquiry is solely about what may be imitated 
by articulate sounds." — Campbell.— i.e. solely concerning. 

Ex.—" Though he fall, he shall not utterly be cast down/' 

If the verb be considered a compound active verb, which 



PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 147 

is usually the case when the preposition qualifies the verb, 
then the adverb may be placed before the participle, as — he 
shall not be utterly cast down. The adverb, however, does 
not modify the verb "cast/' but the preposition "down;" 
"he shall not be cast utterly down." 

Ex. — " And this you may very consistently do, even though 
you should consider them merely the avant couriers, to an- 
nounce the approach or entrance of a noun." — Tooke. 

The adverb even, in this example, qualifies the conjunc- 
tion " though ;" the adverb merely appears to qualify the 
article, but in fact it belongs to the noun, " the mere avant 
couriers." 

Ex. — " We do indeed see all the outward marks of respect 
bestowed upon persons, merely because they are rich and 
powerful." — Cobbett. 

The adverb " merely " qualifies the conjunction because, 
and the phrase, " merely because," is equivalent to " the 
mere cause being" they are rich and powerful. 

Ex. — " I conceived the notion, that Peter was in the no- 
minative, only because no action was mentioned at all in the 
sentence." — Cobbett, i.e. '* The only cause being." 

But we shall give one more example, in which the reader 
will clearly perceive the connection between the adverb and 
this conjunction. 

Ex.— We see daily, or rather weekly, that medical writers 

denounce, as unprincipled, such men as and 

because they held office in the central board, because, and 
apparently, merely because they occupied stations which were 
supposed to have attached to them valuable emoluments. 

It may be observed, that Dr. Johnson* appears to favour 
this opinion respecting the use of adverbs, before indeclinable 
words, and if Mr. Tooke's theory be correct, there seems to 
be no reason why any one should hesitate to admit the 
propriety of extending the application of adverbs to pre- 
positions, conjunctions, and definitives in general. 

Should our view of this subject be consistent with the 
principles of construction, and if the fact, that the adverb 
qualifies every part of speech except the noun and pronoun 

* " Out o/— prep. — of seems to be the preposition, and out only to modify 
the sense of it." — Johnson. 



148 PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 

l*as been proved by the examples quoted, it may be presumed 
that the difficulties so often experienced by writers in placing 
adverbs in a sentence, will be in a great measure, if not alto- 
gether, removed. 

Besides those adverbs which are added to modify the attri- 
butes of a noun, there are others which denote order, time, 
place, distance, motion, relation, quantity, comparison, 
doubt, affirmation, negation, demonstration, interrogation — 
in fact, the diversity of words classed by grammarians as 
adverbs, fully justifies the "free translation of Servius," given 
by Mr. Tooke in his Diversions of Purley. 

"Every word," says that sarcastic writer, " quando desinit 
esse quod est, when a grammarian knows not what to make 
of it, migrat in adverbium, he calls an adverb." 



Syntax of Adverbs. 

This part of speech has no government ; the chief thing to 
be attended to is its position in a sentence, and it may be 
remarked, that no word requires more care in this respect 
than the adverb. Perspicuity of style, and force of expres- 
sion, depend in a great measure on the use of this necessary 
part of speech. 

The adverb being in its nature, so nearly allied to the 
adjective is in general subject to the same rule of position, 
it being commonly placed before the word it qualifies, as — 
" a very excellent discourse ;" " more viciously disposed." 

Ex. — "The subject has been thoroughly investigated, and 
the truth fully developed." 

The place of the adverb may in general be ascertained by 
considering what word it is intended to qualify. But not 
unfrequently, for the sake of emphasis, from usage, or to 
avoid ambiguity, the adverb follows the verb to which it 
belongs, or is placed at a distance from it. 

Ex. — " To express the degree of difference between things 
precisely and forcibly we must employ distinct phrases," 

In this example the adverbs qualify the infinitive mood 
at the beginning of the sentence. 






PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 149 

"We would recommend," says Dr. Crombie, "that when 
the adverb refers not to a word, but to a sentence or clause, 
it be placed at the beginning of a sentence or clause ; where 
it refers to a predicate, it precede the predicating term, and 
when it has reference to a subject, it follow its name or des- 
cription." 

Adverbs are often improperly used for adjectives, and 
adjectives for adverbs. 

Ex. — " He behaved himself conformable to that great ex- 
ample." 

Ex.— Their determination was conformably to the best 
usage. 

In the first of these examples the word conformable quali- 
fies the preterite, and requires the adverbial form, " con- 
formably." 

In the next example the word conformably is the predi- 
cate, and should be the adjective, " conformable." 

" An adverb may be generally known by its answering to 
the question how ? how much ? when ? or where ? as in 
the phrase. He reads correctly, the answer to the question. 
How does he read? is correctly." — Murray. 



Illustration of Adverbs. 

" Under the flattering prospects we adore 
There often lurks a danger, not perceived ; 
And were we never thwarted in our course 
Salvation must miscarry. Mercy, then, 
Is the foundation and effectual spring 
Of all events, which seem the work of chance. 
The man repulsed is but the child refused, 
The dangerous weapon which may wound himself." 

The above illustration, though containing but few adverbs, 
is judged sufficient, since this is a part of speech of such fre- 
quent occurrence, that examples may be found in the pages 
of every writer. 



CHAPTER X. 



PREPOSITIONS. 

' 'Tis easy for men to write, one after another, of cases and genders, moods 
and tenses, gerunds and supines. In these, and the like, there has heen 
great diligence used. But though Prepositions and Conjunctions 
are names well known in grammar, and the particles contained under 
them carefully ranked into their distinct subdivisions, yet he who would 
shew the right use of particles, and what significancy and force they 
have, must take a little more pains ; enter into his own thoughts ; 
and observe, nicely, the several postures of his mind in discoursing." 
Locke. 

<•& 

Convinced of the importance of fixing, as nearly as possi- 
ble, a determinate signification to the indeclinable parts of 
speech, we will not assert, in treating of prepositions, that 
" it is not so much their* meaning with which the gram- 
marian is concerned, as their syntactical character, their 
capacity of affecting other words, or being affected by them." 
This would be declining a point of the utmost importance, 
and the neglect of investigating which has, hitherto, caused 
the difficulty of ascertaining the use and just application of 
these words. 

Mr. Tooke was the first who attempted to expose the 
method of explaining the origin and nature of these particles. 
The celebrity his work on language has acquired is perhaps 
the best proof of the success of his investigations. That 
writer, with a spirit of inquiry, evincing at once the strength 
and independence of his mind, and his zeal for the true 
principles of science, disdained to adopt the opinions of 

* "The grammarian says it is none of his business, but that it belongs 
to the philosopher, and for that reason, only, he omits giving an account of 
them. Whilst the philosopher avails himself of his dignity, and when he 
meets with a stubborn difficulty which he cannot unravel, (and only then,) 
disdains to be employed about words, although they are the necessary channel 
through which his most precious liquors must flow". — Tooke. 



PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 151 

others, because they were established. He boldly ventured to 
question the truth of those instructions which he did not 
comprehend, and he has set before us an example which 
may serve as some excuse for freely examining the opinions 
of even so reputable a writer as himself. 

Prepositions may be conveniently divided into two classes. 

First. Those which denote the relations of place, and 
which, when thus employed, have always a determinate and 
uniform signification. These have been aptly called local 
prepositions ; they are often used adverbially to modify the 
signification of another word, as — to walk about ; to laugh 
at ; to bear out ; to cast up ; to carry off. 

The meanings of local prepositions are so evident, and 
are, in general, so clearly understood, that examples to illus- 
trate their several significations can scarcely be considered 
requisite. To those, however, who are not accustomed to 
inquiries of this kind, the following poetical list of English 
prepositions may be of service ; and it is hoped, (with the 
assistance of the spirited engraving, illustrating the relations 
denoted by the greater part of these words,) that their 
meaning will be readily imprinted on the mind of the 
impractised reader. 



List of Prepositions. 

" Along, among, above, about, 
Against, amongst, concerning, out, 
After, at, behind, before, 
Below, beneatb, beside, and for, 
Besides, between, betwixt, and by, 
Beyond, off, unto, over, nigh, 
During, from, within, and through, 
For, near, since, of, in, into, 
Till, to, with, without, upon, 
Until, under, toward, on." 

Relations, it has been observed, are the most abstract and 
metaphysical ideas of any which men have occasion to form, 
when they are considered by themselves, and separated from 
the related object. It would puzzle any man to give a dis- 
tinct account of what is meant by such words as of or 



152 PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 

from, when it stands by itself, and to explain all that may be 
included under it. But this difficulty does not extend in an 
equal degree to all prepositions ; thus, in the local preposi- 
tions before and near the relations of priority and proximity 
are sufficiently evident, even when the prepositions are 
unconnected with the objects to which they may be applied. 

The second class of prepositions denote less obvious rela- 
tions, and being less determinate in their signification are 
commonly used with greater latitude. Among this class are 
included many of the local prepositions employed in a figu- 
rative sense. For example, the preposition m was originally 
designed to express the circumstance of place, as — " the 
man was killed in the wood." " In progress of time," says 
the writer who furnishes this example, " words were wanted 
to express men's being connected with certain conditions of 
fortune, or certain situations of mind; and some resemblance 
or analogy being fancied between these and the place of 
bodies, the word in was employed to express men's being so 
circumstanced ; as — one's being in health, or in sickness; in 
prosperity, or in adversity ; in joy, or in grief; in doubt, or 
in danger, or in safety. Here we see this preposition in 
plainly assuming a tropical signification, or carried off from 
its original meaning, to signify something else which relates 
to or resembles it." 

In sometimes denotes the relation of time, as — in the 
mean time. 

Ex. — In the beginning God created, i.e. during that period 
called the beginning God created the heavens and the earth. 

The prepositions which we purpose more particularly to 
examine are, by, with, without, from, to, on, off, near, at, 
of, and for. 



By. 



By is a modification, or, according to Mr. Tooke's theory, 
a corruption of the imperative of the verb beon, to be. It is 
a substitute for the present participle " being," and in its 
primary signification it connects the agent or doer to the 
passive form of the verb. By has, however, less force of 



PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 1 53 

signification than the verb, and simply unites the agent to 
the object and its attribute, without suggesting the notions 
of affirmation, time, or existence. 

Ex. — England was invaded by Julius Ceesar, i.e. the 
invader being Julius Csesar. And here it may be observed 
that as the force of signification in the connective is increased, 
the union becomes less perfect. Thus, if existence, time, 
and affirmation be added, and the preposition be superseded 
by the verb, a distinct sentence is formed, and the union is 
destroyed. 

England was invaded. The invader was Julius Caesar. 

That the preposition has a separate manner of significa- 
tion, distinct from the participle, is obvious, from the fact 
that it is often used in connection with it. 

Ex. — " How can a thing be said to rest or stop by being in 
one place for one instant only". — Harris. 

By is sometimes used for during, as— by day, and by 
night, i.e. during day, and during night. 



With and Without. 

Mr. Tooke derives with from "withan" to join, as — a house 
with a party wall, i.e. a house join a party wall. 

We do not dispute the correctness of this derivation, we 
merely question its utility. For no one now applies that 
meaning to the preposition, neither does any one attribute 
to it the imperative manner of signification which it formerly 
possessed. With has generally the power of a present parti- 
ciple, as — a house with, or having, a party wall ; a man with 
a clear conscience, or having a clear conscience ; a soldier 
with a musket, or having a musket ; I wrote these sentences 
with a pen, or having a pen. 

Without, when it does not denote the relation of place, 
is equivalent to not having, as — a house without a party wall, 
i.e. not having a party wall ; a picture without a frame, not 
having a frame ; an assemblage of words without a verb, i.e. 
not having a verb. 

Much of the intricacy of composition is connected with 
this indeclinable part of speech. When a writer or speaker 



154 PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 

wishes to include under one affirmation any object or cir- 
cumstance not immediately connected with the principal 
subject and its attribute, he in general has recourse to this 
kind of abbreviation. 

Ex. — " The sale of twelve very large impressions, within a 
few years, of the Eton Latin Grammar, with notes, for the 
use 0/ schools, is the best evidence of the continued appro- 
bation o/'the public." — Mavor. 

The connection of the foregoing sentence, in which several 
nouns are introduced, is chiefly maintained by prepositions. 

When we form a sentence, says Mr. Harris, the substan- 
tive, without difficulty, coincides with the verb, from the 
natural coincidence of substance and energy — the sun 
warmeth. So likewise the energy with the subject on which 
it operates — warmeth the earth. So likewise both substance 
and energy with their proper attributes, — the splendid 
sun genially warmeth the fertile earth. But suppose we 
were desirous to add other substantives, as, for instance, 
air and beams. How would these coincide, or under what 
character could they be introduced ? Not as nominatives or 
accusatives, for those places are already filled ; the nomina- 
tive by the substance sun, the accusative by the substance 
earth. Not as attributes to these last, or to any other thing, 
for attributes, by nature, they neither are nor can be made. 
Here, then, we perceive the rise and use of prepositions. 
By these we connect those substantives to sentences which, 
at the time, are unable to coalesce of themselves. Let us 
assume, for instance, a pair of these connectives, through 
and with, and mark their effect upon the substances here 
mentioned. " The splendid sun, with his beams, genially 
warmeth through the air the fertile earth. The sentence, 
as before, remains intire and one ; the substantives required 
are both introduced, and not a word which was there before 
is detruded from its proper place." 

With is often used for by to connect the means or instru- 
ment by which a state of being or an effect is produced ; as 
in the above example, the sun is the agent, and his beams 
are the instrument by means of which the fertile earth is 
warmed. Had by been used instead of with, the direct 
agency of the sun would have been less forcibly expressed. 



PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 155 

This nice distinction between by and with has been noticed 
by Blair in his Lectures on Rhetoric. "Both these particles 
express the connection between some instrument, or means 
of effecting an end, and the agent who employs it ; but with 
expresses a more close and immediate connection ; by a more 
remote one/' 

Ex. — The criminal is bound with ropes by the executioner. 

We have shown under the preposition by that the force 
of signification is increased, and the connection diminished, 
by employing the participle, or the verb, instead of the pre- 
position. We will now endeavour to shew that when the 
signification in the connecting parts of a sentence is dimi- 
nished, the union is rendered more compact : — 

A house that has not a chimney is incomplete. 

A house not having a chimney is incomplete. 

A house without a chimney is incomplete. 

There is no difference in the meaning of these sentences, 
but the first contains two assertions, and the connection is 
maintained by the relative pronoun that ; in the last the 
object is connected by the preposition, and included with 
the subject and predicate under one assertion. The same 
connection is effected by using the participles instead of 
equivalent prepositions. 

Ex. — The fears of my printer do not permit me to expose 
the circumstances, producing, preceding, accompanying, and 
following my strange trial of six days for high treason ; that 
is, the circumstances of, and those which occurred before, 
at, and after my strange trial of six days for high treason. 



From and To. 

From denotes the relation which a nominative bears 
to an object, from which it has been separated, or has a 
tendency to leave ; it also directs the mind to the object 
with which the nominative was formerly associated, and 
refers to it as the source whence the nominative originally 
proceeded, as — rain comes from the clouds ; the bird flies 
from the nest. 



156 PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 

" From relates to every thing to which beginning relates, 
and therefore is referable to time as well as to motion, 
without which, indeed, there can be no time." 

Ex. — From morn till night th' eternal larum rang. 

To denotes the relation which the nominative bears to an 
object towards which it is directed, or has a tendency to 
approach, as — the king is travelling to Brighton ; the bird 
is flying to its nest. 

Ex, — He went from London to York. 

These prepositions are opposed to each other, and have 
a general reference to past and future. From denotes that 
the relation of possession or co-existence between the nomi- 
native and its source is past. To denotes that the approach 
of the nominative and its object is to come. 



Since. 

Since refers to an event or circumstance, and denotes 
the lapse of an era as yet incomplete, and from which 
period, to the present moment, the existence or non- 
existence of some event or circumstance is affirmed, as — 
corn has been cheaper since the peace. 



On and Off. 

On denotes contact and support, as — on the ceiling ; on 
the ground. Off implies separation, as — off the shoulders. 

These prepositions are opposed to each other. For 
example, the statue is off the pedestal, and on the ground. 
Are spirituous liquors to be drunk on the premises, or off the 
premises ? 

Off is more commonly used as an adverb than as a pre- 
position ; but whether used alone, or in composition, it 
means, either literally or figuratively, disjunction, absence, 
privation, or distance. 



PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 157 



Near and At. 

Near denotes the relation of proximity, and the propriety 
of its use depends on the objects compared. Thus, the sun 
is near the earth if its distance be compared with that of 
some of the fixed stars. But the sun is not near the earth 
if we compare the earth's distance from the sun with that 
which separates terrestial objects. A person may, perhaps, 
be said to be near home when within a hundred yards of his 
habitation, but if he be terminating a long journey, he would 
probably consider himself near home, though distant some 
miles from the place of his abode. Hence, this preposition 
admits degrees of comparison, as— near, nearer, nearest, 
and is therefore considered by some grammarians to be an 
adjective. 

Ex. — Turnham Green is near London, Kensington is 
nearer, but Knightsbridge is nearest. 

Near is sometimes used for the adverb nearly. 

At denotes the place which terminates the approach or 
approximation of one body to another. It denotes the pre- 
sence of the subject in the immediate vicinity of its object ; 
thus, we arrive at a town before we enter. 

Ex. — He arrived at the door, and entered the house. 

At also denotes the boundaries which include a period of 
time, as — he came at nine, and left at four. 

At is frequently used instead of a more significant term, 
as — he is at the play, i.e. seeing or hearing the play ; at 
supper, i.e. eating his supper. 

This preposition is likewise used adverbially to restrict the 
signification of the verb, as — the plaintiff was struck at, but 
not struck by the defendant ; the bird was shot at, but not 
shot by the sportsman. 

Ex. — " Colloquial pronunciation, which is perfect, is so 
much the language of solemn speaking, that, perhaps, there 
is no more difference than between the same picture painted 
to be viewed near and at a distance." — Walker. 

The prepositions near and at in this example, denote the 
relation of place, and may, with propriety, be denominated 
local prepositions. 



158 PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 



Of. 



Of, in its primary signification denotes the relation of 
property or possession, as — the crown of the king of England ; 
that is, the crown belonging to, or possessed by, the king. 

When the names of two objects are used to designate one 
individual, the noun, governed by the preposition, becomes, 
a definitive to the principal term, and thus loses its inde- 
pendent character as a noun, as — the letters of Cicero. The 
preposition of is here equivalent to that sign by which the 
English genitive is expressed ; for, instead of — the letters of 
Cicero, we may, with equal propriety, say — Cicero's letters." 

But if a property or quality be inherent, or supposed to 
be inherent, in the noun, the noun itself is the possessor, 
and the definitive cannot, with propriety, be put in the 
possessive case, for the quality pertains to the noun. This 
relation, therefore, is more correctly expressed by an adjec- 
tive. Thus, instead of — a man of virtue, we say — a virtuous 
man; a mind of activity — an active mind. That is, a man 
possessing virtue, and not possessed by, or belonging to, virtue. 
For we cannot say — virtue's man; activity's mind. This 
figurative mode of expressing these qualities would now 
scarcely be tolerated. 

Of has a variety of less determinate significations than 
that which implies property or possession, as — a glass of 
wine ; a cup of coffee ; a hogshead of sugar. Here the 
nouns containing denote the quantities of the substances 
which they contain. The name of the substance is joined 
by the preposition, to show to what class of substances the 
quantity belongs. The wine-glass, the coffee-cup, and the 
hogshead, are not the subjects spoken of, but the quantities 
of wine, of coffee, and of sugar, which those vessels contain. 
We cannot, therefore, say — the wine's glass, the coffee's cup, 
the sugar's hogshead ; since wine, coffee, and sugar, are not 
used as the definitives of the nouns to which they are united. 

In the following example of is used strictly as a con- 
nective, for in no instance can it, with propriety, be turned 
into the English genitive. 

Ex. — " Of some of the books of each of these classes of 
literature, a catalogue will be given at the end o/*the work." 



PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 159 

Of sometimes means producing, or which produced. 

Ex. — "The causes of great events are often regarded with 
more intense interest than the events themselves;" i.e. the 
causes producing, or which produced, great events are 
often, &c. 

Of sometimes means concerning. 

"Of man's first disobedience, and the fruit of that for- 
bidden tree." The first of means concerning, the second 
belonging to. 

" Of is so vague in its signification that it may be used 
for many of the other prepositions. Thus, we can say — a 
descendant of or from ; a friend of or to ; hatred of or for ; 
an associate of or with; beloved of or by, &c. But pos- 
session is probably its original signification, in common with 
that of the termination of the possessive case, to which it is 
equivalent." — M'Culloch. 



For. 



Mr. Tooke has pointed out an error committed by some 
grammarians who have attempted to explain the meaning of 
prepositions. These writers either attribute to the preposi- 
tion the signification expressed by the verb which accom- 
panies it, or they transfer to the preposition the meaning of 
some other word in the sentence. 

" If," says Mr. Harris, " we say — that lamp hangs from 
the ceiling, the preposition from assumes a character of 
quiescence; but if we say that lamp is falling from the 
ceiling, the preposition in such cases assumes a character of 
motion. So in Milton. — 

1 To support uneasy steps 
Over the burning marie'. 

Here over denotes motion. Again. — 

' He, with looks of cordial love, 
Hung over her enamoured.' 

Here over denotes rest." 

The reader will perceive that over refers simply to the 
relation of place, and that motion is suggested in the first 



160 PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 

example by the noun steps, and that, in the last instance, 
rest is implied in the verb hung. But Mr. Tooke seems to 
have committed as great an error respecting the true charac- 
ter of these words, when he ascribed one and the same 
meaning as invariably denoted by the same preposition. 

The word for, says Mr. Tooke, means cause, and among 
other examples, taken from Johnson and Greenwood, he 
adduces the following : — 

"Christ died for us (i.e. cause us or we being the cause of 
his dying/') 

"To fight for the public good, (i.e. cause the public, or the 
public good being the cause of fighting.") 

" I cannot for my life, (i.e. my life being the cause,) or to 
save my life being the cause why I should do it, i.e. though 
my life were at stake." 

" Chelsea hospital was built for disabled soldiers, i.e. dis- 
abled soldiers being the cause of its being built." 

"The soldier fights for the king, i.e. the king being the 
cause of his fighting." 

" Ofor a muse of fire that would ascend, 
The brightest heaven of invention." 

"That is, O! I wish for a muse of fire &c, i.e. a muse of fire 
being the cause of my wishing." 

" Some of the philosophers have run so far back for argu- 
ments of comfort against pain, as to doubt whether there 
were any such thing, (i.e. arguments of comfort against 
pain the cause of running so far back.") 

" It were not for your quiet nor your good, 
Nor/br my manhood, honesty, and widom, 
To let you know my thoughts." 

" That is, your quiet is a cause, your good is a cause, my 
manhood, my honesty, my wisdom, each is a cause, why it 
is not fit or proper to let you know my thoughts." 

We shall content ourselves with the foregoing examples, 
although Mr. Tooke has occupied newly fifty pages of his first 
volume with extracts and remarks on this single preposition. 

For is a preposition which has in itself no fixed meaning. 
It resembles a pronoun, and is put in the place of another 
word. It is generally employed to suggest an infinitive or 



PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 161 

verbal noun, as — " Christ died for us," i.e. " to save," or 
"to redeem" us. Here, the preposition for does not mean 
cause, but refers to the object to be attained by the sacrifice 
of Christ, viz., the salvation of mankind. 

To fight for the public good, i.e. " to protect," " to pro- 
mote," or " to preserve" the public good. The preservation of 
the public good being the object which induces honourable 
men to fight. 

I cannot for my life, i.e. if it were " to save" my life ; but 
"my life" is not the cause why I cannot ; nor does for in 
this example indicate, in the remotest degree, the cause of the 
impossibility. 

Chelsea hospital was built for disabled soldiers, i.e. " to 
contain" " to shelter," or " to succour" disabled soldiers. 

The soldier fights for the king, i.e. "to protect," or "to 
support'' the king. 

" Ofor a muse of fire that would ascend 
The brightest heaven of invention." 

That is, O ! "to obtain" or " to possess" a muse of fire. 

" Some of the philosophers have run so far back for argu- 
ments of comfort against pain, as to doubt whether there were 
any such thing," i. e. " to obtain," or " to procure" argu- 
ments against pain. 

" It were not for your quiet nor your good, 
Nor^br my manhood, honesty, and wisdom, 
To let you know my thoughts." 

That is, "to secure," "to restore," or "to ensure" your 
quiet nor your good; nor " to prove," or " to evince" my 
manhood, honesty, and wisdom, to let you know my 
thoughts. 

In this example, the infinitive " to let," may be repre- 
sented by the preposition for, as — "for you to know my 
thoughts." The emphasis is now removed to the subsequent 
verb, and the sign of the infinitive becomes necessary, — "for 
you to know my thoughts." 

We shall add a few more examples in disproof of what has 
been advanced by Mr. Tooke, respecting the primary signifi- 
cation of this preposition. 

M 



162 PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 

Ex. — "A motion was made for an order for a writ/or the 
election of a burgess for to serve in parliament for the 
borough of Old Sarum." 

However plausibly the several objects might be assigned 
in this example as causes, it is evident that the preposition 
for is not intended to express that relation. The motion 
was " to obtain " an order ; the order " to procure " a writ ; 
the writ " to authorise" an election ; the election " to enable" 
a burgess to serve in parliament, " to represent" the borough 
of Old Sarum. 

Ex. — " The prepositions were originally, and for a long 
time, classed with the conjunctions." — Tooke. 

Ex. — He has every thing he wishes for, and still he is 
not satisfied. 

For, in these sentences, cannot mean cause ; in the latter 
it is used to avoid the repetition of the verb. He has every 
thing he wishes to have, and still he is not satisfied. 

For, when used as a conjunction, means because, and it 
was this signification, probably, that induced Mr. Tooke to 
attribute the meaning of cause to the preposition. 

When we say that prepositions supply the place of more 
significant terms, we do not intend to assert that the more 
significant terms are present in the mind of the speaker, or 
are suggested to the hearer by the use of prepositions. So 
vivid a representation of the significant term would be in- 
consistent with the character assigned to this part of speech. 
It is the peculiar property of " words, used for other words/' 
to express the idea less distinctly ; they are, therefore, 
used with greater latitude, and have commonly a variety of 
significations. 



Syntax of Prepositions. 

Rule I. Prepositions retain the power they originally 
possessed as participles, and, like active verbs, require the 
noun or pronoun to be in the objective case, as — " between 
you and me ;" " before him or her ;" " after them." 

Rule II. Prepositions should be placed as near as pos- 
sible to the words they govern. By not attending to this 



PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 163 

rule, the construction is often rendered obscure arid in- 
elegant. 

Ex. — The ignorance of the age, in mechanical arts, ren- 
dered the progress very slow of this new invention. 

It should be, "rendered the progress of this new invention 
very slow." 

In some cases, however, the preposition follows the word 
it governs, and is placed at the end of the clause or sentence; 
but this construction is commonly avoided by accurate 
writers. 

Ex. — This is the subject which they differed on, i e. on 
which they differed. 

Prepositions often serve to modify verbs, and when thus 
employed, they may be classed among adverbs, as — to smile 
on, to laugh at. 

"Verbs," says Mr. Murray, "are often compounded of a 
verb and a preposition, as —to uphold, to invest, to overlook ; 
and this composition sometimes gives a new sense to the 
verb, as — to understand, to withdraw, to forgive ;* but, in 
English, the preposition is more frequently placed after the 
verb, and separately from it, like an adverb, in which situa- 
tion it is not less apt to affect the sense of it, and to give it 
a new meaning, and may still be considered as belonging to 
the verb, and as a part of it." 

The obscure signification attached to the indeclinable 
parts of speech, renders them very liable to misapplication ; 
and the want of uniformity, among good writers, in the use 
of some of these words, furnishes the grammarian with a 
pretence to refer to authority in cases of doubtful construc- 
tion, and to consider reputable use as the only standard of 
propriety in language. 

The utility of prepositions, and the inconvenience of omit- 
ting them, has been humorously exemplified by Shakespeare, 
and the passage may not be considered an inappropriate 

ILLUSTRATION OF PREPOSITIONS — 

* Compare this sentence with the example from Dr. Lowth, page 87. 



M 2 



164 PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 



PETRUCHIO AND GRUMIO. 

Pet Verona, for a while, I take my leave, 

To see my friends in Padua ; but of all 

My best beloved and approved friend 

Hortensio ; and I trow, this is the house ; 

Here, sirrah Grumio ; knock, I say. 
Gru — Knock, sir? whom should I knock? is there any man has rebused 

your worship ? 
Pet. — Villian, I say, knock me here soundly. 
Gru. — Knock you here, sir? why, sir, what am I, sir, I should knock you 

here, sir 1 
Pet. — Villian, I say, knock me at this gate, 

And rap me well, or I'll knock your knave's pate. 

******** 

A senseless villian! — Good Hortensio, 

I bade the rascal knock upon your gate, 

And could not get him from my heart to do it. 

Gru Knock at the gate? O heavens! Spake you not these words 

plain. — Sirrah, knock me here, rap me here, knock me well, and knock 
me soundly ? 

Taming of the Shrew, Act I. sc. 2. 

In this illustration, the reader will perceive that the omis- 
sion of the preposition for, causes the ambiguity complained 
of by Grumio, — " Knock for me at the gate." 









CHAPTER XF. 



CONJUNCTIONS. 

" The words, whereby the mind signifies what connection it gives to the 
several affirmations and negations that it unites in one continued rea- 
soning or narration, are generally called particles,* and it is in the right 
use of these, that more particularly consists the clearness and beauty of 
a good style." — Locke. 

The character of conjunctions is taken from their power 
to connect the phrases or members of a compound sentence. 
Their primitive forms were the present and past participles, 
and the infinitive and imperative moods of verbs. Some of 
these parts of the verb are still employed in connecting 
words and phrases to the affirmative clause of a sentence. 

Ex. — I think myself happy, KingAgrippa, because I shall 
answer for myself this day before thee, touching all the things 
whereof I am accused of the Jews. 

It has been shown that many of these participial conjunc- 
tions, divested of their verbal character by modification, 
have been retained in the language after the verb, in its 
primitive form, ceased to be employed. These are the inde- 
clinable conjunctions, and they, for the most part, admit a 
variety of significations. 

Mr. Tooke, however, denies that conjunctions are a sepa- 
rate sort of words or part of speech, for, says he, " they have 
not a separate manner of signification, although they are 
not devoid of signification." 

That conjunctions have a separate manner of signification 
(however nearly they may be allied to their primitives in 

* Most grammarians content themselves with calling the indeclinable 
parts of speech particles, — " A good convenient name," says Mr. Tooke, 
" for all words which we do not understand ; for, as the denomination means 
nothing in particular, and contains no description, it will equally suit any 
short word we may please to refer thither." 



163 PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 

meaning,) we think it will not be difficult to prove, and 
though it be admitted they are not entirely devoid of sig- 
nification, still we agree with Mr. Harris, that many of 
these, and other indeclinable words, have, at best, but an 
"obscure signification." Those who echo Mr. Tooke's 
assertions, and contend that an obscure signification is no 
signification at all, would do well, first, to show the precise 
meanings of these words. If they are unable to do this, we 
may conclude that Mr. Harris had at least some foundation 
for his opinion respecting these particles. 

Having briefly stated the opinions of Mr. Tooke and Mr. 
Harris, we shall proceed to notice the greater part of those 
words which have been classed by grammarians as inde- 
clinable conjunctions. 



And. 



The use of the conjunction and corresponds more nearly 
with the name given to this part of speech, than does any 
other of its class. It serves to connect words and sentences, 
and is equivalent to the verb add. The reader will, however, 
observe that it has not the s&me force of signification. 

Ex. — " A sentence is an assemblage of words expressed 
in proper form, and ranged in proper order, and concurring 
to make a complete sense." 

By substituting the more significant term add, in the fore- 
going example, the members or clauses will be rendered less 
connected, and the repetition of the imperative conjunction 
becomes displeasing, add ranged in proper order, add con- 
curring &c. 

Ex. — In the beginning God created the heaven add the 
earth, add the earth was without form add void, add darkness 
was upon the face of the deep. 

The tautology in this example is not perceived in the 
original, because the mind is not called upon to supply the 
force of signification to the conjunction. The principal 
ideas are also more readily united by the conjunction, than 
they would have been, if the verb had been used. " And 
the earth was without form and void, and darkness was upon 



PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 167 

the face of the deep." But if the emphasis or meaning of 
the conjunction were rendered more conspicuous, it would 
necessarily detract from that rapid enunciation of ideas 
which is so desirable in the communication of our thoughts. 
One example more will, perhaps, sufficiently prove the in- 
convenience of using a more significant term, in place of the 
conjunction. 

Ex. — Add we have greatly benefitted by those languages, 
add have improved our own language by borrowing from 
them a more abbreviated add compact method of speech ; 
add had our earlier or later authors known the benefits we 
were receiving, we might have benefitted much more. 

This example will, perhaps, be sufficient to satisfy the 
reader that conjunctions are almost, if not altogether, indis- 
pensable in the communication of our thoughts. 

The conjunction and joins words as well as sentences. 

Ex. — Two and two are four. 

Ex. — A B, and B C, and C D, form a triangle. 

The power of and, as a conjunction, is, perhaps, more 
clearly seen in the foregoing examples, (adduced by Mr. 
Tooke, to disprove its separate manner of signification,) than 
when the word is employed to connect sentences. 



If and An. 

" The conjunctions if and an, " says Dr. Darwin," are 
shown by Mr. Tooke, to be derived from the imperative 
mood of the verbs, "to give," and "to grant;" but both 
these conjunctions, by long use, appear to have become the 
name of a more abstract idea, than the words give and grant 
suggest, as they do not now express any ideas of person, or 
of number, or of time, all which are generally attendant 
upon the meaning of a verb ; and, perhaps, all the words of 
this class, are the names of ideas much abstracted, which has 
caused the difficulty of explaining them." 

These few remarks contain, perhaps, more of the philoso- 
phy of language, than will be found in many of the best 
attested derivations of the author, who has attempted to affix 
to these indeclinable words determinate ideas. For, when 



168 



PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 



the force of indeclinable words is increased, the application 
of such terms becomes restricted, and it may well be doubted 
whether it would be advantageous, or tend to promote the 
freedom of discourse, if the primitive signification of these 
indeclinable words were again more generally and clearly 
understood. 

The particle an being now obsolete, or nearly so,* we shall 
confine our remarks to the conjunction if. 

"lF,"says Mr. Tooke, "is merely the imperative of the Gothic 
and Anglo-Saxon verb gifan, and accordingly our corrupted 
if has always the signification of the English imperatives^, 
and no other." Mr. Tooke quotes the following example, — 

My largesse 
Hath lotted her to he your brother's mistresse. 
Gif she can be reclaimed; gif not his prey. 

"And here," says Mr. Tooke, " as an additional proof, we 
may observe, that whenever the datum upon which any 
conclusion depends is a sentence, the article that, if not ex- 
pressed, is always understood, and may be inserted after if, 
as in the instance produced above ; the poet might have said 
— gif that she can be reclaimed, &c." 

" For the resolution is — she can be reclaimed, •' Give that 
my largesse hath lotted her to be your brothers's mistresse, 
she cannot be reclaimed.' — Give that my largesse hath lotted 
her to be your brother's prey." 

The reader will perceive that Mr. Tooke, by his method 
of resolution, has taken away the manner of signification 
from the conjunction ; and by giving it the force of an 
imperative, he has altered the construction of the poet's 
sentences. There is no one can doubt but the derivation of 
if from gif en is correct, but the manner of signification is 
not the same, for the conjunction ceases to be a verb when 
it is no longer used imperatively. It has also received a 
modification which so far obliterates its primitiye meaning as 
to render it fit for the purpose it now serves. 

If qualifies an assertion, and renders it conditional. It 
also connects the condition on which the assertion depends. 

* " An for if is still retained in our address to royalty — ' A n't please your 
majesty.' and in Scotland is in general use." — GjROJiSIE. 



PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 



169 



Ex. — I will go to-morrow, if it do not rain. 

Ex. — If we say we have no sin, the truth is not in us. 

In the last example the condition is first expressed, and 
then followed by the assertion it modifies; but the first 
member of the sentence is not affirmative, being modified by 
the conjunction if, and the last is only conditionally nega- 
tive, depending on the contingence, that " we say we have 
no sin.." 

The conjunction if is often used improperly for conjunc- 
tions which qualify and connect the tenses of the indicative 
mood, as — if it rains, I shall not go, instead of since it rains 
I shall not go, or seeing it rains I shall not go. 

In the following examples, from Mr. Harris and Blair, 
the conjunction if seems incorrectly employed. 

"If men are by nature social, it is their interest to be 
just, though it were not so ordained by the laws of their 
country;" it should be, — since men. are by nature social, &c. 

Ex. — "And if this was the case, as they have shown." — 
Blair. 

The if should be as, or some other affirmative conjunc- 
tion ; — "and as this was the case, &c." 



Unless. — Lest. 

Mr. Tooke attributes the same meaning to lest as he does 
to unless, yet any one, with an ordinary knowledge of the 
nature of prefixes, may perceive that unless has a negative 
signification, which lest has not. 

In two of the three examples quoted by Mr. Tooke from 
G. Douglas, the word les is followed by the negative than; 
and in the first example les has the affirmative signification 
of still. If Mr. Tooke had perceived the force of the particle 
than, and its connection with les, he would probably have 
given a different interpretation to the verb lesan, which has 
no prefix to entitle it to the same signification as oralesan or 
dismiss. 

Unless has nearly the same meaning as the conjunction if 
with the adverb not. 



170 PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 

Ex. — I will go unless I be ill, i.e. I will go if I be not ill. 

Ex. — Ye shall die unless ye repent, i.e. ye shall die if ye 
do not repent, or ye shall die, but not if ye repent. The con- 
junction but is necessary when the adverb is put before the 
conditional conjunction, for the negative then obtains its 
full force as an adverb, and is rendered unfit to connect the 
conditional clause of the compound sentence. " Ye shall die 
not if ye repent" would be abrupt, though the meaning would 
be precisely the same as " ye shall die unless ye repent." 

Lest is affirmative, and connects the cause, or anticipated 
contingency, with the prior member of a compound sentence, 
but it does not, like unless, render the prior assertion con- 
tingent or conditional. 

Ex. — " There is danger lest it be new without novelty." — 
Johnson. 

Ex — Ye shall die lest ye be polluted. 

Ex. — Yea speedily was he taken away lest that wickedness 
should alter his understanding, or deceit beguile his soul. 

The reader has only to vary the conjunctions in the fore- 
going examples, and he will find that they have not an equiva- 
lent signification. For " ye shall die unless ye be polluted," 
would signify that ye shall not die, if that contingency exist; 
whereas, in the example, the assertion is peremptory, not- 
withstanding the cause itself is spoken of indefinitely, as a 
probability, and not as a circumstance actually existing, but 
as one that may exist, therefore "ye shall die lest ye be 
polluted. 

Less may formerly have been used as an abbreviation of 
unless, in the same manner as till is now used for until, but 
the signification of less, when thus employed, is not equiva- 
lent to lest. 

Ex. — " But will not bide there less yourself do bring him." 

Unless is also said to be used sometimes as a preposition. 

Ex. — The commendation of adversaries is the greatest 
triumph of a writer, because it never comes unless extorted. 

Than. 

" Than," says Dr. Crombie, " which Mr. Tooke does not 
seem to have noticed, is supposed to be a compound of the 



PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 171 

definitive tha, and the additive termination en ; thus, tha en, 
thce?ine, then, are now spelled than." And this is all we have 
been able to learn respecting the character of this word. 

The conjunction than generally denotes comparison, and 
is put before the negative clause of a compound sentence. 
When correctly used, it has the power of a negative, and is 
equivalent to not, or and not. 

Ex. — The latter marks the object more emphatically than 
the former, i.e. the latter, and not the former, marks the 
object more emphatically. 

Ex. — I like, him better than you, i.e. not you better. 

Ex. — It is the fate of those who toil at the lower employ- 
ments of life to be rather driven by the fear of evil than 
attracted by the prospect of good, i.e. and not attracted by 
the prospect of good. 

Ex. — " More men fall, generally, in a battle than (not) in 
an engagement, because a greater number are opposed to 
each other in the former than (not) in the latter." 

As a proof that than has a negative signification, we may 
quote an example in which another negative has been used 
in the compound sentence ; here it will be seen that the two 
negatives are equivalent to an affirmative : — 

Ex. — " The positive has been thought by some writers to 
be improperly termed a degree of comparison, as it seems to 
be nothing more than the simple form of an adjective." 
" As it seems to be only " would have expressed the writer's 
meaning. The phrase " nothing more than " is adverbial 
and affirmative, and equivalent in meaning to the adverb 
merely. 

The phrase "no sooner than" is equivalent to "as soon 
as." 

Ex. — " The play no sooner opens than every auditor 
knows how it will conclude," i.e. as soon as the play opens, 
&c. 

The use of the double negative, however, often varies the 
expression, and denotes a shade of difference when opposed 
to the affirmative sign of comparison. 

Ex. — John will arrive no sooner than Charles. 

Ex. — John will arrive as soon as Charles. 

The mind perceives a difference between these sentences, 



172 PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 

though they both express the simultaneous arrival of the 
persons. 

Than is often employed as a mere disjunctive, and does 
not denote comparison ; in these cases it loses its negative 
signification. 

Ex. — "Who, under the pretence of reform, have really 
no other object but the subversion of our happy constitution." 
" Here," says Mr. Cobbett, " we have ' no other object but,' 
instead of ' no other object than.' " 

Now, as there is no comparison implied in the foregoing 
sentence, (the word other being a definitive,) we see no 
reason why the disjunctive but should not be employed. If 
authority shall decide when usage is at variance, we may 
safely affirm that many of our best and most correct writers 
will be found to favour the phraseology which modern gram- 
marians have thought proper to condemn. 

Ex. — " If men do find a difficulty to see the agreement 
or disagreement of two angles which lie before their eyes 
unalterably in a diagram, how utterly impossible will it be to 
perceive it in ideas that have no other sensible objects to 
represent them to the mind but sounds," i.e. except sounds. 
— Locke. 

Ex. — "What now is the cure? — No other but this, — that 
every man should let alone other's prejudices, and examine 
his own." — Locke. 

Ex. — " And that for no other reason but because it has 
pleased our grammarians." — Horne Tooke. 

The phrases, " no other but," " no other than," are syno- 
nymous and equivalent to the adverb " merely." 

Ex. — "The grammar of any language is no other than a 
collection of general observations." — Campbell. 

That is, merely a collection of general observations. 

Nor. 

Nor is a substitute for not, and serves as a conjunction 
when placed between words or sentences. Like the demon- 
strative that, it loses its force of signification from its position. 

Ex. — There is not a word in any language which has not 
a complete signification. It is not possible there should be. 



PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 173 

Here are two distinct sentences ; but, if it be desirable to 
unite them, the position of the last sentence must be changed, 
and the adverb, being modified, becomes a conjunction. 

Ex. — There is not, nor is it possible there should be, a 
word in any language which has not a complete signification. 

The reader will observe that whenever nor is used to con- 
nect the subsequent or second member of a compound 
sentence, the nominative is placed after the verb, in order 
that the verb may stand as near as possible to the conjunc- 
tion which continues (though less forcibly) to modify it. 
" It is not, nor is it possible." 

The definitive no (not any) is sometimes changed into the 
conjunction nor, and by that means sentences, otherwise 
unconnected, become united. 

Ex. — None could exceed him in candour. His benevo- 
lence was equally remarkable. He had no affectation what- 
ever. 

In this example there are three distinct sentences ; but 
by separating the adverb from the definitive, and by using in 
its stead the conjunction nor, the last two sentences may be 
united thus — 

None could exceed him in candour ; his benevolence was 
equally remarkable ; nor had he any affectation whatever. 



Or. 



Or is a substitute for either, (and supposed to be a con- 
traction of other) having less force of signification, and 
therefore better adapted to join either words or sentences. 

Ex. A fleece 

To match or those of Sicily or Greece. 

Ex. — Manners must be reformed, or liberty will be lost. 

" Here," says Mr. Harris, " the conjunction or, though it 
join the sentences, yet, as to their respective meanings, is a 
perfect disjunctive. And thus it appears, that though all 
conjunctions conjoin sentences, yet, with respect to the 
sense, some are conjunctive, and some disjunctive ; and 
hence it is that we derive their different species." 



174 PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 

The disjunctive power of this conjunction may be traced 
to its original signification as a definitive. It indefinitely 
implies election or choice, and consequently denotes separa- 
tion The attribute or verb, therefore, refers only to one 
subject, and is required to be of the singular number,— as, 
negligence or ignorance has caused this mischief. 

Or denotes diversity either of name or subject, and some- 
times connects the definition only, as may be seen in the 
following examples, adduced by Mr. Harris : — 

" It may be observed through all the species of disjunctives 
that the same disjunctive appears to have greater or less force, 
according as the subjects which it disjoins are more or less 
disjoined by nature. For example, if we say — every number 
is even or odd ; every proposition is true or false, — nothing 
seems to disjoin more strongly than the disjunctive, because 
no things are in nature more incompatible than the subjects. 
But if we say — that object is a triangle, or figure contained 
under three right lines, — the or in this case hardly seems to 
disjoin, or indeed to do more than distinctly to express the 
thing first by its name, and then by its definition. So if 
we say — that figure is a sphere, or a globe, or a ball, — the 
disjunctive in this case tends no farther to disjoin than as it 
distinguishes the several names which belong to the same 
thing:' 



Neither. 

The conjunction neither is a modification of not and 
either ; by the union of which words the force of signification 
is diminished, and the adverb and definitive, when united, 
serve to connect the members of a sentence, which would 
otherwise require a conjunction. 

Ex. — He desires neither poverty nor affluence. 

Without the conjunctive form of the negatives this sen- 
tence would be abrupt ; and although the force of the words 
would be increased, the sentence would not be equally per- 
spicuous. — He desires not affluence, not poverty either. 

The negatives are disjunctive, in as much as they separate 
the predicate from the subject. This property of the adverb 



PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 175 

has not been sufficiently attended to by those who dispute 
the propriety of disjunctive conjunctions. The verb unites, 
while the adverb disjoins, the parts of such sentences. 

Ex. — " Neither you nor I are in fault." 

This idiom is pronounced correct, because it corresponds 
with the Latin — " id neque ego neque tu fecimus." But we, 
who do not feel the necessity of referring to a dead language 
in order to decide the propriety of modern phraseology, give 
the preference to the following ; — 

Neither are you nor am I in fault. 

This is an English idiom, and not only better adapted to 
our manner of expression, but it is more correct than the 
Latinized construction. The negatives nor and neither qualify 
the verb in different persons, and the conjunction, being 
disjunctive, requires the verb to be expressed or understood 
when the nominatives are of different persons. The con- 
struction — neither you nor I am in fault— is preferable to 
the one commonly recommended. 



For. 



For, used as a conjunction, signifies cause, or rather be- 
cause, i.e. the cause being. 

Ex. — " They are delighted with the stories that are told, 
and perhaps can tell them again, for they make all they read 
nothing but history to themselves." — Locke. 

Ex. — "Perhaps man may be more properly distinguished as 
an idle animal, for there is no man who is not sometimes 
idle. It is, at least, a definition from which none that shall 
find it in this paper can be excepted, for who can be more 
idle than the reader of the Idler?"' — Johnson. 

For is sometimes rendered emphatic by the addition of 
the conjunction that, and it may be observed that the latter 
conjunction is often employed for a similar purpose with 
other conjunctions. 

Ex. — "My Essays, of all my other works, have been most 
current, for that, as it seems, they come home to men's 
business and bosoms." — Bacon. 

The difference of signification between for, used as a con- 



176 PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 

junction, and the preposition for, has already been shown. 
Additional examples can, therefore, scarcely be considered 
necessary to prove the uniform meaning of this word when 
employed as a conjunction. 



Because. 

The meaning of this conjunction is evident from the 
words of which it is compounded. Its power to connect 
sentences may be seen in the following example ; — 

Ex. — Rome was enslaved. Caesar was ambitious. 

Here is no connection between the sentences : they are 
both independent assertions ; but if the latter be attributed 
to the former as the cause, then the sentences become 
united, as — 

Rome was enslaved because Ceesar was ambitious, i.e. the 
cause beiny, Csesar was ambitious. The conjunction is, 
however, preferable to the present participle, because it is 
less emphatic, and does not suggest the notion of time. 

Therefore. 

Therefore, though classed by Dr. Johnson among 
adverbs, is commonly used as a conjunction. It refers to 
the premises, and at the same time connects the deduction 
or inference. 

Ex. — "Riches are for spending, and spending for honour 
and good actions, therefore extraordinary expence must be 
limited by the worth of the occasion." — Bacon. 

" A nice distinction of the sense," says Mr. Murray, " is 
sometimes made by the use or omission of the article a. If 
I say — he behaved with a little reverence — my meaning is 
positive ; if I say — he behaved with little reverence — my 
meaning is negative ; and these two are by no means the 
same, or to be used in the same cases ; by the former I 
rather praise a person ; by the latter I dispraise him." 

The copulative conjunction in this sentence should be 
therefore. We have given this example at length, because 
it contains a useful remark on the indefinite article. 



PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 177 



Though. 



The signification attributed to this conjunction by Mr. 
Tooke appears to coincide with its general meaning, viz. — 
allow, grant, permit, yield, assent. 

Ex. — Troy will be taken, although Hector defend it. 

This conjunction does not necessarily require the subjunc- 
tive mood after it. 

Ex. — You still carry with you your old humour in politics, 
though your subject is different. 

Here the conjunction is followed by the indicative, but in 
the preceding example the verb is conditional. 



Save. 

Save is generally classed among adverbs, though it may 
perhaps more properly be considered a conjunction. Mr. 
Tooke considers it the imperative of the verb "to save;" 
but he is compelled to admit that it sometimes has a different 
manner of signification : his illustration proves this, — " God 
save you all, save this friar." 



Since. 

" Since, in modern English," says Mr. Tooke, "is used 
four ways ; two as a preposition connecting, or rather affecting, 
words ; and two as a conjunction affecting sentences." 

" "When used as a preposition it has always the significa- 
tion either of the past participle seen joined to thence (that 
is, seen and thenceforward) , or else it has the signification of 
the past participle seen only." 

" When used as a conjunction it has sometimes the signi- 
fication of the present participle seeing, or seeing that, and 
sometimes the signification of the past participle seen, or seen 
that." 

Since, used as a conjunction, has generally, if not always, 

N 



178 PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 

the same signification as" the present participle, whence it is 
derived. 

Ex. — " Since speech, then, is the joint energy of our best 
and noblest faculties, being withal our peculiar ornament and 
distinction as men, those inquiries may surely be deemed 
interesting as well as liberal, which either search how speech 
may be naturally resolved, or how, when resolved, it may be 
again combined/' i.e. seeing speech is, &c. Seeing is here 
used to denote a mental perception. 

But the present participle seeing will not always admit of 
being exchanged for the conjunction. 

Ex. — Seeing an unclaimed spot, which is a thing not to 
be found every day, I have taken possession. Here we 
cannot say, since, &c, without altering the construction. 

When since is used to denote an era from a given epoch 
to the present or current time, it is usually called a preposi- 
tion, and shows the relation there is between an event and 
the action, state of being, or circumstance, connected with 
that event. It serves to point out the time which has already 
elapsed from a given period, as — since the creation ; since the 
birth of Christ ; since yesterday. 

Ex. — "The range of useful literature has been considerably 
enlarged since that selection was made." — Mavor. 

Ex. — " What follow are only such as have since presented 
themselves to my recollection." — Brenan. 

In these examples the preposition may, with propriety, be 
called an adverb. It is significant of time, and does not 
govern the subsequent noun. 

When a definite era is expressed by referring to two 
events as marking the commencement and termination of 
the era, the prepositions from and to are used to shew the 
relation, and denote the duration, of the period. 

Ex. — " From morn to night th' eternal larum rung." 



But. 



But generally implies contrast or opposition in the clauses 
or sentences which it connects. 

Ex. — He is rich, but he is not generous. 




c^Aa& its&e&bvf- 0^7%^£/y&frv<ru tt^z^u ft let 0^- ff.'< . 
J^tTW^e'&ea^eizeMsesMe/ett e'/te etc t/ee t ;-'t/i . 



PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 179 

Ex, — And lead us not into temptation, but deliver us from 
evil. 

This conjunction has a variety of significations. The fol- 
lowing have been noticed by Mr. Locke. 

First. — " But, to say no more, — ." Here it intimates a 
stop of the mind in the course it was going, before it came 
to the end of it. 

Secondly. — " I saw but two plants." Here it shews that 
the mind limits the sense to what is expressed, with a nega- 
tion of all other. 

Thirdly. — " You pray, but it is not that God would bring 
you to the true religion ; 

Fourthly. — But that he would confirm you in your own." 
The first of these huts intimates a supposition of the mind of 
something otherwise than it should be ; the latter shows that 
the mind makes a direct opposition between that and what 
goes before. 

Fifthly. — "All animals have sense, but a dog is an animal." 
Here it signifies little more but that the latter proposition is 
joined to the former as the minor of a syllogism. 

Mr. Tooke controverts the opinion of Mr. Locke, and 
would reduce the signification of but to the meaning of the 
two verbs botan, "to boot," and beon-utan, "to be out." 
The distinction between these verbs being lost, the same 
particle now serves to denote both meanings. 

Ex. — " But, as we are talking of Greek, I will tell you one 
thing more." — Russell. 

In some few phrases but may signify to boot ; yet, in the 
majority of its uses, but has neither the signification " to 
boot," nor the exceptive meaning of the verb beon-utan. 

When but connects a clause qualified by " not only," it 
will bear the interpretation of botan, " to boot. " 

Ex. — " This word is constantly used not only at the begin- 
ning and between but (to boot) at the end of sentences." 

If we compare the signification of but in the following 
examples with but in the foregoing, the conjunction will be 
found to have a very different meaning. 

Ex. — " It is not evidence of truth, but some lazy antici- 
pation, some beloved presumption, that he desires to rest 
undisturbed in." — Locke. 

n2 



180 PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 

In this sentence " but " denotes opposition or contrariety, 
and does not correspond to either of the significations given 
by Mr. Tooke. 

Ex. — " Of these two we shall consider the conjunction 
first, because it connects not words, but sentences." — Harris. 
Here but cannot mean " to boot/' for sentences are the only 
things said to be connected. 

But is used after a digression to denote the mind has 
stopped from the course of argument it was pursuing, and is 
about to resume the former subject ; — " but to proceed ;" 
"but to go fairly through the matter;" "but not to stop." 
This last example would be nonsense if there had not been 
a stop or digression. 

In common with other conjunctions but denotes that 
something is to follow, and so far it implies more. It does 
not, however, always indicate that what follows is either to 
be added (to boot) to what went immediately before ; nor, 
on the other hand, to be taken out from the preceding clause 
which it connects. It has, as Mr. Locke observes, a great 
variety of significations. 

Ex. — " But to pursue our subject." — Harris. Here but 
is used distinctly as a disjunctive conjunction. It denotes a 
stop to one subject, and connects the sequel of another. 

But is sometimes used as an adverb. 

Ex. — " If it be in a dispute where every little straw is 
laid hold on, and every thing that can but be drawn in any 
way to give colour to the argument is advanced with osten- 
tation." — Locke. 

Ex. — " 'On the sixth day God made man of the dust of 
the earth after his own image/ This is a simple sentence in 
the sense of rhetoricians and critics, as it has but one verb, 
but less simple than the former." — Campbell. 

The first but in this example is an adverb, equivalent to 
only ; the second but is a conjunction. 

That the signification of many indeclinable words depends 
upon the connection and association such terms have with 
other words is perhaps already too apparent to require 
further proof. A remarkable instance, however, of the lati- 
tude in which even a single letter may be used is mentioned 
by Mr. Locke. 



PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 181 

" In the Hebrew tongue there is a 'particle, consisting but 
of one single letter, of which there are reckoned up, as T 
remember, seventy, I am sure above fifty, several significa- 
tions. " 

Now, what but the position or association of this letter 
can impart its various significations? and how can its mean- 
ing be distinctly ascertained, except in connection with more 
significant terms ? 



Who, Which, and That. 

These pronouns differ from the personal pronouns more 
in their power to connect sentences than in the reference 
which they bear to the antecedent noun ; for the personal 
pronouns, in general, refer to some noun going before, and 
are so far relative pronouns. 

Ex. — Among these unhappy mortals is the writer of dic- 
tionaries : mankind have considered him not as the pupil, 
but the slave, of science. 

Ex. — Among these unhappy mortals is the writer of dic- 
tionaries, whom mankind have considered not as the pupil, 
but the slave, of science. 

Here the two simple sentences in the first example are 
united in the second by changing the place and form of the 
personal pronoun. 

" It is in the united powers of a connective and another 
pronoun," says Mr. Harris, " that we may see the force and 
character of the pronouns here treated." 

Ex. — Light is a body ; it moves with great celerity. 

Ex. — Light is a body, and it moves with great celerity. 

If in the place of and it we substitute that or which, 
saying — light is a body which moves with great celerity — the 
sentence still retains its unity and perfection, and becomes, 
if possible, more compact than before. 

Dr. Crombie, however, thinks that the relative pronoun is 
not always thus resolvable, but only in those examples in 
which the relative clause does not limit or modify the mean- 
ing of the antecedent. " If I say — ' man who is born of a 
woman is of few days, and full of trouble,' the relative clause 



182 PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 

is not restrictive ; I may therefore resolve the pronoun, and 
say — man is of few days, and he is born of a woman." 
" Light is a body which moves with great velocity" is resol- 
vable into "light is a body, and it moves with great velocity." 
But when the relative clause limits the meaning of the ante- 
cedent, the relative is clearly not thus resolvable. " ' Virgil 
was the only epic poet among the Romans who can be com- 
pared to Homer/ The signification of the antecedent is 
here restricted by the relative clause ; we cannot, therefore, 
by resolution say— Virgil was the only epic poet among the 
Romans, and he can be compared to Homer; — for the former 
of these propositions is not true, nor is the sentiment which 
it conveys accordant with the meaning of the author." 

The exception by Dr. Crombie does not affect the con- 
junctive power of the relative. If the pronoun who had not 
the power of the copulative conjunction, the sentence would 
be equally incorrect. May not the difficulty arise from the 
construction ? The adverb "only" is equivocally employed, 
and the word ■■ Romans" may be taken in its widest sense, 
instead of being confined to the epic poets of that nation. 
The meaning of the sentence is this, — Virgil was the or that 
epic poet who only (among the Romans) can be compared 
with Homer — i.e. and only he among the Roman epic poets 
can be compared with Homer. The proper place of the 
adverb is between the conjunction and the personal pronoun ; 
but when the relative is used, it cannot always be so placed, 
so as to avoid ambiguity. 



That. 

We do not think Mr. Tooke has proved this conjunction 
" to have always merely the same force and manner of signi- 
fication, which ' that* has when called an article or pronoun. " 
Mr. Tooke's derivation, and his method of resolution, will, 
perhaps, be sufficient to convince the reader, that when this 
definitive is used as a conjunction, it loses its original force 
and signification, and cannot, as long as it is thus situated, be 
considered either an article or a pronoun. All that Mr. 



PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 183 

Tooke does in his method of analysis, is to remove the con- 
junction, and place it where it can with propriety be construed 
in its original signification. Our modern grammarians indeed 
seem much captivated with this singular method of proving 
a word to be no conjunction ; but the reader will judge from 
the example, and its resolution, whether the word ' that' has 
the same force and signification in both, or whether the 
example be not a united sentence, and the resolution two 
distinct unconnected assertions. 

Ex. — Thieves riseby night, that they may cut men's throats. 

Res. — Thieves may cut men's throats, (for) that (purpose) 
they rise by night. 

Mr. Tooke here attempts to supply the connection he has 
destroyed, by inserting a preposition ; but the reader will 
perceive that not only is a conjunction still wanting (" and 
for that purpose"), but the meaning of the sentence is very 
different. The assertion in the first clause is unqualified, — 
"thieves may cut men's throats," instead of, that thieves 
may cut men's throats, they rise by night, — " Ut jugulent 
homines surgunt de nocte latrones." 

Ex. — I wish you to believe, that I would not wilfully hurt 
a fly. 

Res. — I would not wilfully hurt a fly, I wish you to believe 
that assertion. 

Now Mr. Tooke derives the word that from the Anglo- 
Saxon participle theat, taken or assumed, and grammarians 
say the demonstrative or relative "that," should always 
refer (if used as a definitive,) to some subject taken or as- 
sumed, or spoken of before; but in the example, the subject 
follows the supposed demonstrative, and if the force of an 
article or definitive were necessary, the corresponding pro- 
noun should have been employed thus : — 

" I wish you to believe this (assertion;) I would not wil- 
fully hurt a fly." 

As all Mr. Tooke's examples of this word are selections of 
similarly constructed sentences, those we have quoted will 
be sufficient to show in what manner the writer has explained 
the nature of this conjunction. 

We shall now add a few examples, in which it would be 
difficult to apply Mr Tooke's method of resolution. 



184 PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 

Ex. — "The pleasures of the imagination have this advan- 
tage above those of the understanding, that they are more 
obvious and easy to be acquired." 

Ex. — "It is true that this is a very great blessing." 

Ex. — My lords, with humble submission, that that I say 
is this, — that that that gentleman has offered, is not that, 
that he should have proved to your lordships. 

In this whimsical example, the word that is used in its 
three distinct manners of signification — as a demonstrative, as 
a conjunction, and as a relative pronoun. 

Ex. — "Do you not think that what you now advance will 
bear a dispute, and that some better arguments than your 
bare assertion are necessary to make us adopt your opinion." 

The first that in the last example is redundant, the rela- 
tive what being equivalent to that which. " Do you not 
think that which you now advance," — the second that is a 
pronoun, and put to avoid the repetition of the phrase, " do 
you not think." 

Ex. — "Who that hath the spirit of a man, would suffer 
himself to be thus disgraced." — Crombie. 

This example, according to Mr. Tooke's infallible method 
of resolution, would read thus; — 

Who would suffer himself to be thus disgraced? that 
(man) hath the spirit of a man. 

We do not ask the reader if this conveys the sense of Dr. 
Crombie's example. The conjunction that, with the verb 
hath, is equivalent to the present participle having. 

Who having the spirit of a man, would suffer himself to 
be thus disgraced. 

However useful an acquaintance with the literal derivation 
of indeclinable words may be, there are other points which 
we consider of much greater importance to those who would 
acquire a practical knowledge of the theory of language. 
Few writers on the subject of grammar attempt to explain 
how indeclinable words originate, or why they are so neces- 
sary to obviate the tediousness and prolixity of an unpolished 
and barbarous phraseology. Dr. Campbell is the only 
author we have read, who has attempted to show the true 
character of these words ; for though Mr. Tooke has traced 



PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 185 

the origin and proved that the indeclinable parts of speech 
are in general reliques of words once significant in the lan- 
guage ; he has, nevertheless, in his zeal to establish their 
primitive meaning, overlooked the advantages which we 
derive from their very obscurity. 

" Connectives," says Dr. Campbell, " are of all parts of 
speech the most unfriendly to vivacity, for in themselves they 
are but the taches which serve to unite the constituent parts 
of a sentence or a paragraph. Consequently the less con- 
spicuous they are, the more perfect will the union of the parts 
be, and the more easily will the hearer glide, as it were, from 
one word, clause, or member of a period to another, the more 
observable they are, the less perfect is the union." 

It has been already shown that by merely changing the 
position of a word in a sentence its force of signification may 
be modified, or so far obscured, that it will serve to connect 
the members of a sentence, without awakening those ideas 
which would tend to destroy that connection. 

The mind, like the eye, can view only one object distinctly 
at a time, for if it endeavour to contemplate, with equal at- 
tention, several impressions simultaneously, the whole will 
become more or less obscure, in proportion to the number 
of individuals it tries to particularise at one view. Hence, 
the necessity of connecting relative ideas by terms less sig- 
nificant than those which denote the principal objects of 
discourse, and hence, too, we are able to understand Dr. 
Campbell's apparent paradox, that — " The less time the 

MIND BESTOWS ON THE INSIGNIFICANT PARTS OF A SEN- 
TENCE, THE MORE SIGNIFICANT WILL THE WHOLE APPEAR." 

We shall endeavour to illustrate this analogy, between the 
power of vision, and that of mental perception, by a diagram. 

The figure in the margin repre- 
sents the eye at a common reading AAA A A. A AAA 
distance, viewing a row of letters, but 
fixed with the most attention to the 
middle letter A. 

Now, as we read, a ray may be 
supposed to be drawn from the cen- 
tre of the eye to that letter it looks 
at first, and to move successively with it from letter to letter 




186 PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 

the whole length of the line ; but if the eye stops at any par- 
ticular letter A, to observe it more than the rest, these other 
letters will grow more and more imperfect to the sight, the 
farther they are situated on either side of A, as is expressed 
in the figure, and when we endeavour to see all the letters 
in a line equally perfect at one view, as it were, this imagi- 
nary ray must course it to and fro with great celerity. Thus, 
though the eye strictly speaking can only pay due attention 
to these letters in succession; yet the amazing ease and 
swiftness with which it performs this task, enables us to see 
considerable spaces with sufficient satisfaction at one sudden 
view.* 

And thus it is with the mind in viewing objects in connec- 
tion with each other. It is rarely necessary that we should 
recall the abstract ideas, that we may be able to form of 
their several relations. A vague and imperfect notion is all 
that is required. Now, language furnishes, in these inde- 
clinable words, the means whereby we may be enabled to 
express the connection of our thoughts with greater energy 
and propriety than we could possibly do if the meaning of 
all the words in a sentence were equally perspicuous. But 
this great improvement in language Mr. Tooke would destroy, 
by restoring to indeclinable words a force of signification 
which it is not desirable they should at all times possess. 

Syntax of Conjunctions. 

The simplest method of connecting clauses to sentences is 
to omit the verb or sign of affirmation, for by thus rendering 
a clause dependent, it necessarily unites and forms a part of 
the proposition. 

Ex. — The comparative, while it retains its own distinctive 
character denoting simple excess, partakes also of the nature 
of the superlative ; the objects compared being referred. 

This is the case absolute of the learned, concerning 
which so much has been said, and of which, apparently, so 
little is understood. The following is " the rule' given by 
Dr. Crombie : — 

* Hogarth. — Analysis of Beauty 



PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 187 

Rule. — " A noun or pronoun joined to a participle, its 
case being dependent on no word in the sentence, is put in 
the nominative. " 

" This rule/' says Dr. Crombie, " will be perfectly under- 
stood by the classical scholar, when we say that the absolute 
case in English is the nominative. Thus, ' we being exceed- 
ingly tossed, the next day they lightened the ship ;' the 
pronoun of the first person, joined to the participle 'being,' 
is neither the nominative to any verb, nor is it connected with 
any word of which it can be the regimen. It is therefore 
put in the nominative case." 

Now, if we understand this writer, the pronoun is put in 
the nominative case because it is not the nominative of any 
verb. This, it must be confessed, is a singular assertion, 
and directly at variance with the character of the nominative, 
whose office it is to denote the subject. The truth is, the 
pronoun belongs to the verb suppressed, and denotes the 
subject as distinguished from the rest of the clause. The 
verb being absent, the present participle assumes the cha- 
racter of a conjunction, and obviates the necessity of a 
connecting particle: this may be seen by supplying the verb. 

Ex. — We were exceedingly tossed the next day, (therefore) 
they lightened the ship. 

The incipient indeclinable conjunction may be perceived in 
this use of the participles and infinitive mood, for they have 
a different manner of signification when put absolutely than 
when they are employed as attributes predicated of nouns. 
They represent more abstract ideas, and are therefore more 
indefinite, obscure, and difficult to be explained. 

Ex. — To confess the truth, I have no interest in the 
question. 

Ex. — Shame being lost, all virtue is lost. 

Ex. — Admired and applauded, he became vain. 

It has been shewn that the imperative, whence Mr. 
Tooke has derived so many of his conjunctions, is the 
same mood, and denotes the same time as the infinitive, and 
that the infinitive and present participle are often used to 
denote the same idea, the notion of time and affirmation 
being excluded. 

Rule I. Two or more subjects in the singular, united by 



158 PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 

a copulative conjunction, are equivalent to a plural subject, 
and require the verb to agree with them in the plural, as — 
Socrates and Plato were wise. 

The copulative conjunction is sometimes omitted, as — " the 
sun that rolls over our heads, the food that we receive, the 
rest that we enjoy, daily admonish us of a superior and super- 
intending power." Here the three subjects are sufficiently 
apparent, and do not require the connecting particle. 

The conjunction and is sometimes used to join two or 
more nouns to denote a compound, and the verb agrees with 
the nouns in the singular, as — "wine and water is a pleasant 
beverage;" but "wine and water are not often mingled." 
In the first example the conjunction unites two nouns which 
constitute an indivisible subject, but in theiast the conjunc- 
tion connects the nouns as distinct subjects, and they are 
referred to individually by the verb. Thus, we say, " why 
is dust and ashes proud ;" for the nouns dust and ashes are 
figuratively used for the general term man. 

In like manner, two or more facts are sometimes united 
by this conjunction, and, from their close alliance, are con- 
sidered as one. 

Ex. — That such a misfortune should befall your house, 
and mar your prospects, grieves me exceedingly. 

In this sentence, "misfortune" is considered the nomi- 
native. 

The example quoted by Mr. Murray and Mr. Lewis in 
favour of this construction does not appear to be founded in 
the principles of grammar, or within the limits of the excep- 
tion to the general rule. 

Ex. — That warm climates accelerate the growth of the 
human body, and shorten its duration, is very reasonable to 
believe." 

Here are, evidently, two consequences ascribed to warm 
climates, and the verb should be plural. 

Mr. Murray, in his remarks on this exception, admits 
that it is contrary to the first principles of grammar to con- 
sider two distinct ideas as one, however nice may be their 
difference ; and if there be no difference, one of them must 
be superfluous, and ought to be rejected. 

"To support the above construction, it is said that the 



PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 189 

verb may be understood as applied to each of the preceding 
terms, as in the following example — " sand, and salt, and a 
mass of iron, is easier to bear than a man without under- 
standing." But besides the confusion and the latitude of 
application which such a construction would introduce, it 
appears to be more proper and analogical, in cases where the 
verb is intended to be applied to any one of the terms, to 
make use of the disjunctive conjunction, which grammatically 
refers the verb to one or other of the preceding terms in a 
separate view. To preserve the distinctive uses of the copu- 
lative and disjunctive conjunctions, would render the rules 
precise, consistent, and intelligible. Dr. Blair very justly 
observes that " two or more substantives, joined by a copu- 
lative, must always require the verb or pronoun to which 
they refer to be placed in the plural number." 

Rule II. — If nouns and pronouns, of different persons, 
are joined by a copulative conjunction, the pronoun plural 
of the second person takes the place of the third person, and 
the pronoun plural of the first person of both. 

Ex. — Thou and he shared it between you. 

Ex. — James, and thou, and I, are attached to our country, 
i.e. we are attached to our country. 

The propriety of this agreement has been already shewn. 
It has its origin from the principles of construction, and is 
not referable to "authority," or the capricious decision of 
" reputable use." 

Rule III. — The conjunction disjunctive has an effect 
contrary to that of the conjunction copulative ; for, as the 
verb, noun, or pronoun, is referred to separately, the verb 
must be in the singular. 

Ex. — Death, or some worse misfortune, soon divides 
them. 

Rule IV. When pronouns singular of different persons 
are disjunctively connected, the verb must agree with that 
person which is placed nearest to it. 

Ex. — Thou or I am in fault. 

Ex. — I or thou art to blame. 

The verb cannot agree with both, it is therefore " under- 
stood" before the first pronoun, as — thou art, or I am, in 
fault ; I am, or thou art, to blame ; but, as Mr. Murray 



190 PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 

remarks, it would be more accurate to say, either I am in 
fault, or thou art ; either thou art to blame, or I am. 

Conjunctions may be distinguished from prepositions, by 
their wanting the property to govern a noun in the objective 
case. Dr. Crombie asserts that "conjunctions have no 
government," and his opinion appears to be corroborated, 
both by the practice of writers, and by the fundamental 
principles of composition. 

In giving this rule, says Dr. Crombie," I differ from all 
other grammarians who have erroneously, as I concieve, 
assigned them a regimen. Some conjunctions, says Lowth, 
govern the indicative, and some the subjunctive mood. 
This I affirm without hesitation to be a mistake; for not a 
single example, I venture to assert, can be produced in which 
the verb is divested of its indicative form, in consequence of 
its being subjoined to any conjunction. — Etymology and 
Syntax, p. 303. 

Illustration of Conjunctions. 

The use, or rather the abuse of conjunctions, is pretty 
clearly exhibited in the following illustration taken from a 
grammar of the Hebrew and English language. 

" Being greatly desirous to promote the study of Hebrew 
in America; I have drawn up this short English and Hebrew 
grammar together, because those languages appear to me to 
be the simplest and easiest; and (as to the grammatical 
structure of them,) the most like one another of any that 
I know, and also from a persuasion, that as soon as a 
lad has learned to spell and read English well, it is much 
best to begin a learned education with the Hebrew, both 
because it is the first and easiest of all languages, and, indeed, 
the mother of all language and eloquence ; but chiefly because 
in it were written the most ancient original oracles of God, 
and that the Holy Scriptures contain the most excellent the 
most useful and important of all knowledge relating to things 
both human and divine, and they are, most of them, older, 
and the first of them near a thousand years older, than any 
other writings that are now extant, and exhibit an admirable 
picture of the ancient world." 



CHAPTER XII. 



INTERJECTIONS. 

" The dominion of speech is erected upon the downfall of interjections." — 

Tooke. 
" Those exclamations which by grammarians are called interjections, uttered 

in a strong and impassioned manner, were beyond doubt the first 

elements or beginnings of speech." — Blair. 

An interjection is a word which expresses any sudden 
emotion of the mind, as — oh! alas! heigh ho ! 

" Interjections are employed only when the suddenness or 
vehemence of some affection or passion returns men to their 
natural state, and makes them for a moment forget the use 
of speech ; or when from some circumstance the shortness 
of time will not permit them to exercise it." 

Interjections do not interfere with the construction nor 
with the modification of words in a sentence ; they neither 
agree with, nor do they govern other words; they are strictly 
parenthetic, and may be omitted without breaking the con- 
nection of ideas intended to be expressed. Interjections are 
not therefore essentially necessary in written discourse, 
although they may be sometimes advantageously employed 
to give energy, pathos, or fervour, to certain compositions. 
The poets would feel great inconvenience, if interjections 
were altogether prohibited in artificial language. 

Those who pretend to prove that interjections are merely 
abbreviated sentences, have either confounded imperfect 
sentences wherein affirmation was intended, or they have 
mistaken the interpretation* of an interjection for the sign 

* Mr. Cobbett, and his imitator, Mr. Lewis, in their interpretation of 
" sir," i. e. " you who are a sir," seem to have fallen into a similar error 
respecting the vocative case. A noun in the vocative case resembles an 
interjection, and is neither connected with the concord nor the government 
of words in a sentence. It names the object spoken to, either to arrest the 
attention, or to denote respect. 



192 PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 

itself. Thus — welcome, adieu, hark! lo! are not interjec- 
tions, but imperfect sentences. 

The word heigh ho ! is an interjection, indicating langour, 
and may be interpreted into, " I am weary ;" but the person 
uttering the exclamation is perhaps scarcely conscious of 
doing so, and certainly has no intention to affirm his state of 
weariness. Such words are therefore properly denominated 
interjections. 

As long as interjections are tolerated in written language, 
so long must they be classed among the distinct parts of 
speech. They are signs of emotions, and when artificially 
used, are designed to awaken corresponding sensations in the 
person to whom they are addressed. 



Illustration of Interjections. 

Ah ! who can tell how hard it is to climb 

The steep where Fame's proud temple shines afar! 
Ah ! who can tell how many a soul sublime 

Has felt the influence of malignant star, 
And waged with Fortune an eternal war ; 

Checked by the scoif of Pride, and Envy's frown, 
In life's low vale, remote, has pined alone, 

And dropt into the grave unpitied and unknown ! 

The above stanza contains all the parts of speech ; and we 
strongly recommend those who may be yet unacquainted 
with the distinctions which have given rise to the classifica- 
tion of words, to copy the whole into columns, either seriatim, 
or under the several heads of articles, nouns, pronouns, &c, 
and at the same time to observe the modifications that occur, 
and the construction, government, and concord, of the several 
members of the sentence. It is by such exercises, that 
almost any one, even unassisted by an instructor, may make 
himself master of the rules of grammar. 

We shall conclude this part of our subject with Dr. Darwin's 
account of the origin of language, and of the different parts 
of speech. 

Thus the first language, when we frowned or smiled, 
Rose from the cradle Imitation's child; 



PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 193 

Next to each thought, associate sound accords, 

And forms the dulcet symphony of words : 

The tongue the lips articulate,— the throat, 

With soft vibration, modulates the note. 

Love, pity, war, the shout, the song, the prayer, 
Form quick concussions of elastic air. 

Hence, the first accents bear in airy rings 
The vocal symbols of ideal things ; 
Name each nice change appulsive powers supply 
To the quick sense of touch, or ear, or eye; 
Or in fine traits, abstracted forms suggest, 
Of beauty, wisdom, number, motion, rest ; 
Or as within reflex ideas move, 
Trace the light steps of reason, rage, and love ; 
The next new sounds, adjunctive thoughts accite 
As hard, odorous, tuneful, sweet, or white; 
The next, the fleeting images select, 
Of action, suffering, causes, and effect; 
Or mark existence, with the march sublime, 
O'er earth and ocean of recording time; 
Last, steps abbreviation, bold and strong, 
And leads the volant trains of words along; 
With sweet loquacity, to Hermes springs, 
And decks his forehead and bis feet with'wings. 



CHAPTER XIV. 



t/ 



DERIVATION. 

As in the woods the leaves change with each revolving year, and the most 
early fall the first, so words perish as they grow old, and those of more 
modern date succeed and flourish for a time, like men in their youth." 

The history of a nation affords the best, if not the only, 
means of tracing the origin of a particular tongue. The 
elements of modern languages appear to have been borrowed 
from other languages more remote, and in a great measure 
extinct. To trace the progress of a particular tongue, if such 
a task were practicable, could be considered as a labour of 
only very limited utility. The present state of the English 
language, and how far established modes of speech will admit 
of improvement, are subjects most deserving the attention of 
the scholar and grammarian. 

The following concise account of the origin and formation 
of the English language is taken from Rapin's History of 
England, vol. ii. p. 209 :— 

" The language of the Anglo-Saxons before the Conquest 
was a mixture of the following dialects. 1. Of British or 
Celtic, from whence, no doubt, the Saxons borrowed some 
words and phrases. 2. Of Latin, which was common in 
Great Britain when the Saxons arrived. 3. Of the ancient 
English or Danish. 4. Of the modern Danish, 5. Of pure 
Saxon. 6. Of Norman mixed with Danish and French." 

" They who have carefully studied this matter distinguish 
three principal dialects in the Anglo-Saxon language. The 
first was compounded of British, Latin, and Saxon, but in 
such a manner that the Saxon was predominant ; the 
second dialect, which may be termed Dano- Saxon, was used 



PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 195 

in the northern parts from the first invasions of the Danes 
to the Norman Conquest ; the third dialect was made up of 
the other two and the Norman. This dialect, which was 
introduced chiefly in the reigns of Edward the Confessor 
and William the Conqueror, has admitted of great alterations 
by the addition of abundance of French words, particularly 
after Henry the Second's accession to the crown of England. 
They who are ignorant of the English tongue will not easily 
be made to believe that a mixture of so many languages can 
have any extraordinary beauties : but the English assert that 
their tongue should for that very reason be the more beauti- 
ful and expressive, since they have adopted only the more 
refined part of other tongues, and rejected what is rude and 
unpolished. Be this as it will, they have a great value for 
their own language, and if a foreigner may be allowed to give 
his opinion, I think very justly." 

" If we should suppose," says Blair, in his lecture on the 
rise and progress of language, " a period before any words 
were invented or known, it is clear that men could have no 
other method of communicating to others what they felt 
than by the cries of passion, accompanied with such motions 
and gestures as were further expressive of passion." 

** When more enlarged communication became necessary, 
and names began to be assigned to objects, in what manner 
can we suppose men to have proceeded in this assignation of 
names or invention of words ? — undoubtedly by imitating as 
much as they could the nature of the object which they 
named by the sound of the name which they gave to it. As 
a painter who would represent grass must employ a green 
colour, so, in the beginnings of language, one giving name to 
any thing harsh and boisterous would of course employ a 
harsh and boisterous sound. He could not do otherwise if 
he meant to excite in the hearer the idea of that thing which 
he sought to name. To suppose words invented, or names 
given to things, in a manner purely arbitrary, without any 
ground or reason, is to suppose an effect without a cause. 
There must have always been some motive which led to 
the assignation of one name rather than another ; and we 
can conceive no motive which would more generally operate 
upon men in their first efforts towards language than a desire 

o 2 



196 PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 

to paint by speech the objects which they named in a manner 
more or less complete, according as the vocal organs had it 
in their power to effect this imitation." 

" Wherever objects were to be named in which sound, 
noise, or motion, were concerned, the imitation by words 
was abundantly obvious : nothing was more natural than to 
imitate by the sound of the voice the quality of the sound or 
noise which any external object made, and to form its name 
accordingly. Thus, in all languages, we find a multitude of 
words that are. evidently constructed upon this principle. A 
certain bird is termed a cuckoo from the sound which it 
emits. When one sort of wind is said to whistle, and another 
to roar, when a serpent is said to hiss, a fly to buzz, and 
falling timber to crash, when a stream is said to flow, and 
hail to rattle, the analogy between the word and the thing 
signified is plainly discernible." 

"This principle, however, of a natural relation between 
words and objects can only be applied to language in its 
most simple and primitive state. Though in every tongue 
some remains of it can be traced, it were utterly in vain to 
search for it throughout the whole construction of any 
modern language. As the multitude of terms increase in 
every nation, and the immense field of language is filled up, 
words, by a thousand fanciful and irregular methods of deri- 
vation and composition, come to deviate widely from the 
primitive character of their roots, and to lose all analogy or 
resemblance in sound to the thing signified. In this state 
we now find language. Words, as we now employ them, 
taken in the general, may be considered as symbols, not as 
imitations ; as arbitrary or instituted, not natural signs of 
ideas : but there can be no doubt, I think, that language, the 
nearer we remount to its rise among men, will be found to 
partake more of a natural expression. As it could be origi- 
nally formed on nothing but imitation, it would in its primi- 
tive state be more picturesque, much more barren, indeed, 
and narrow, in the circle of its terms, than now ; but, as far 
as it went, more expressive by sound of the thing signified. 
This, then, may be assumed as the character of the first 
state or beginnings of language, among every savage tribe/' 
Having given this brief outline of the origin of language, 



PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 197 

we shall proceed to make a few remarks on the subject of 
derivation. 

The knowledge of the derivation of words can be only so 
far useful as it may enable any one to understand and retain 
the true and precise meaning of words. But when a lan- 
guage has been so far changed, that words derived from 
obsolete roots can no longer be recognised as belonging to 
such roots, having assumed another form, or to which 
another meaning has been attached, they, in fact, have 
become new words, and it is an idle abuse of time to trace 
their original construction or primitive signification. One 
example will shew how far the meaning of a word may be 
changed, though all the parts of such word continue to be 
used. 

To improve, according to the meaning now attached to it, 
is " to advance any thing nearer to perfection," to raise from 
good to better. Compare this with the word in its original 
signification, and it will be found to have acquired a new 
meaning. To improve formerly signified to censure, to im- 
peach, to blame, to reprove. 

" Whereas he hath spoken it by his own mouth, that it is 
not good for man to be alone, they have improved that doc- 
trine, and taught the contrary." 

" There did they worship it in their scarlet gowns, with 
cap in hand ; and here they improve it with scorns and with 
mocks, grinning upon her like termagants in a play/' 

Philologists imagine that they render an essential service 
to the illiterate by publishing their speculations on the origin 
of words ; but are we better acquainted with established 
modes of speech from perusing works on derivation ? Do 
we, for instance, acquire a more correct notion of the title 
of " Lady " because it formerly signified a person who dis- 
tributed bread to the poor; or do we understand the meaning 
of the word " bread " because we are informed it originally 
implied corn brayed in a mortar. 

What should we think of the wisdom of a philosopher who 
pretended to examine more accurately the quality of a tole- 
rably clear spring by first stirring the mud which once floated 
on its surface. Etymologists do little else when they bring 
forward obsolete words to prove the meaning of terms used 



198 PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 

in modern discourse. Such analysis may please and amuse 
the black-lettered antiquary or the pedant, but few will be 
able to appreciate its practical utility.* 

Let not, however, our views upon this point be misunder- 
stood. We speak only of those terms which have either 
changed their primitive significations, or have become obso- 
lete. But as long as the meaning of any word can be traced 
by comparing the derivative with its root, it is of the utmost 
importance to acquire a knowledge of the circumstances upon 
which such word depends for its signification : for, " whilst 
on the one hand we recognise a derivative word by the iden- 
tity of sound with the radical sound, we, on the other hand, 
appreciate its meaning by comparing the derivative with the 
radical notion." 

Nouns may be considered the legitimate roots of all attri- 
butes, for the modification of an idea necessarily requires a 
change or distinction in the term which represents the radical 
notion, but it does not follow that language must supply a 
distinct term for every idea before a derivative notion can be 
expressed, for there are many nouns which are said to be 
derived from adjectives and verbs, as — goodness, from good ; 
reader, from to read : yet we shall find that the signification 
of these attributes depended at first on the notions the mind 
had formed of " goodness " and " the act of reading/' and 
that, in fact, " to read " is an abstract noun, from which the 
noun "reader" derives its signification. It is the circum- 
stance of reading which gives the meaning we apply to the 
noun "reader" in the same manner as the circumstances 
which accompany the perpetration of a murder induces us 
to call one man an assassin, f and another a burker or 
burkite. 

In proportion, then, as the circumstances which gave rise 

* " With, regard to etymology, about which grammarians make so much 
useless bustle, if every one hath a privilege of altering words according to his 
own opinion of their origin, the opinions of the learned being on this subject 
so various, nothing but a general chaos can ensue." — Campbell. 

t " The word assassin is said to be derived from a sect of Mahometans, 
called Chassins, dwelling in six cities near Antaradus, in Syria, being about 
forty thousand in number. They were ready to stab any prince whom the 
old man of the mountains should appoint them, or to go upon any dangerous 
attempt." — Rapin. 



PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 199 

to the names of things are remembered, we shall form our 
notions of the modifications of the radical noun. But the 
particular circumstances which gave to many words now in 
use their form and origin, are no longer identified with the 
subject, nor can those circumstances assist to impart a 
meaning to the terms with which they were originally asso- 
ciated. This is the case with the words we have already 
quoted ; for bread is not made of corn brayed in a mortar, 
nor is the idea any one forms of the title of Lady ever asso- 
ciated with the duty of distributing bread to the poor. In 
addition to these words, we may notice the following as still 
more objectionable in their obsolete derivations ; — stern — 
ster-er, ster'n, i.e. stirred. " It is the same word," says Mr. 
Tooke, "and has the same meaning, whether we say — a stern 
countenance, i.e. a moved countenance, moved by some 
passion, or — the stern of a ship, i.e. the moved part of a ship, 
or that part by which it is moved. It is the past participle 
of the verb stiren movere, which we now in English write 
differently, according to its different applications — to stir, to 
steer." 

The meaning here ascribed to stern is nearly in direct 
opposition to the one usually applied to it, for a stern coun- 
tenance is immoveable in its expression of severity. 



Ex. " When that the poor have cried, Caesar hath wept ; 
Ambition should be made of sterner stuff." 

Shakespeare. 

That is, stuff not easily moved by the calamities of the poor. 



Ex. " Women are soft, mild, pitiful, and flexible, 

Thou stern, obdurate, flinty, rough, remorseless." 

Shakespeare. 

In this example, stern is opposed to flexible. 

Ex. " The judge supreme soon cast a stedfast eye, 
Stern, yet tempered with benignity." 

Harte. 

Ste?n, in this last example, means severe, and not moved 
or moveable. 



200 PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 

Mr. Tooke's attempt to attribute the signification of 
ordered, or commanded, to the word right, is another proof 
of the futility of these derivations. For although a right 
line may be defined a line that is well ordered in its direction 
between two points, yet that direction cannot be said to be 
commanded. The sense in which right is used as an abstract 
noun, is the same in which it is applied to the Almighty 
when we acknowledge he has a right to control his creatures, 
it is his privilege as their Creator ; and his creatures have a 
right to obey, for their obedience is a duty which they owe to 
him, their Creator. 

Right, then, according to its acceptation in this sense, is 
that which ought to be, that which is owed, and a person 
may be said to obtain his right when he gets his due — his 
own. But what is ordered and commanded is not always 
what is right ; for a villain may receive a reward for treason, 
fraud, or treachery, but every honest man will allow that if 
he got his right he ought to be hanged. 

Ex. — " Persons of noble blood are less envied in their 
rising, for it seemeth but right done to their birth." — Bacon. 
That is, their due, what was owing to them. 

Ex. — The Roman citizens were by the sword taught to 
acknowledge the pope their lord, though they knew not by 
what right. 

Here the order or command was enforced, but it was not 
admitted to be right. 

The important word truth has, in a similar manner, been 
misinterpreted, by tracing the noun to its verbal root. 

" True,'* says Mr. Tooke, " is the past participle of the 
verb to think, to believe firmly, to be thoroughly persuaded 
of, to trow ; and 

" Truth is what men think ; and if two persons speak what 
they think, though they contradict each other, they may yet 
both speak truth." 

The fallacy of this opinion needs little more to refute it 
than the usual definition of the word truth. 

Truth is the contrary to falsehood ; the just conformity 
of notions to things ; reality ; fact. For so far only as ideas, 
represented by sounds, agree to their archetypes, so far only 
is truth real. 



PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 201 

The notion that the sun rises every day in the east is 
false ; and the affirmation which asserts the phenomenon to 
be true is a falsehood. On the other hand, the affirmation 
that the earth revolving on its axis causes this phenomenon, 
is true ; for the truth of this notion has been proved by well 
known facts, ascertained from observation. Men think truly 
when their thoughts are in conformity with the nature of the 
subject which engages their attention ; they speak truly when 
the fact is as they represent it ; but the fact itself is the 
truth, and not the notions which men entertain concerning 
the subject of their thoughts ; for however various and im- 
perfect the opinions of men may be, truth is still immutable. 
The principles upon which it rests can never change. From 
truth nothing can really follow but what is true ; and many 
may think that the author who could mistake the opinions of 
men for truth was little qualified to be a critic, and altogether 
undeserving the character of a philosopher. We shall con- 
clude these remarks on truth by quoting a passage from Mr. 
Locke's Essay on Association. 

" Many men firmly embrace falsehood for truth, not only 
because they never thought otherwise, but also because, thus 
blinded as they have been from the beginning, they never 
could think otherwise, at least without a vigour of mind able 
to contest the empire of habit, and look into its own principles, 
a freedom which few men have the notion of in themselves, 
and fewer are allowed the practice of by others, it being the 
great art and business of the teachers and guides in most 
sects to suppress as much as they can this fundamental duty 
which every man owes himself, and is the first ready step 
towards right and truth in the whole train of his actions and 
opinions ; this would give one reason to suspect that such 
teachers are conscious to themselves of the falsehood or 
weakness of the tenets they profess, since they will not 
suffer the grounds whereon they are built to be examined, 
when, as those who seek truth only, and desire to own and 
propagate nothing else, freely expose their principles to 
the test, and are pleased to have them examined ; give 
men leave to reject them if they can, and if there be any 
thing weak and unsound in them, are willing to have it 
detected, that they themselves, as well as others, may not 



202 PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 

lay any stress upon any received proposition, beyond what 
the evidence of its truth will warrant and allow." 

Person is another instance of the original meaning of a 
word being no assistance in ascertaining its precise significa- 
tion. Person is now a general term applied to mankind, 
without referring to the sex or character of the individual ; 
and personage denotes an individual of higher rank than 
persons in general. But person, we are informed, originally 
signified the mask worn by actors on the Roman stage, and 
through which the voice was sounded ; the word was after- 
wards used to denote an individual represented on the stage. 
If we were now to associate these circumstances, in using 
the word person, and consider the individual thus designated 
as representing a fictitious character, and speaking through a 
mask, the term might be justly considered one of reproach, 
and synonymous with hypocrite. Personage, also, which is 
now an honourable distinction, would then signify that the 
person so distinguished was a greater hypocrite than persons 
in general. This derivation, therefore, may amuse, but it 
cannot serve to determine the meaning of the word person. 

" Some are of opinion that the word Sterling comes from 
the town Striveling or Sterling in Scotland, where they pre- 
tend, without any authority, that the best and purest money 
was formerly coined. Others say, with much greater proba- 
bility, that Sterling is derived from the Saxon word Steore, 
which signifies rule or standard, that according to this 
opinion, sterling money means no more than money made 
according to a settled standard. Camden and some others 
believed this word was of amuch more modern date, and taken 
from certain Flemish workmen, who, in the reign of King 
John, were called into England to reduce the money to its 
due fineness, in which they were more expert than the 
English. As the people of that country were termed 
Easterlings, because they lived eastward of England, 'tis 
pretended that the money they coined was called easterling 
or sterling, that is, made by the Easterlings or Flemish, and 
consequently purer than what had been coined before. 
Others have imagined that sterling is derived from the Star or 
Starling, supposed to have been formerly stamped on the coin." 

Of these suppositions, the second is preferable, because it 



PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 203 

attaches to sterling a circumstance that leads to the precise 
meaning of the word, and by thus attributing to the term a 
well defined signification, it tends to perpetuate its use. 

Those who affirm that all roots are verbs, appear to have 
but a very superficial knowledge of the origin and formation 
of speech, for upon what principle can we trace the words 
virtue, pride, man, sun, and a great number of substantive 
nouns, to verbal roots, or how can the notions expressed by 
those words, be derived from " notions of activity trans- 
formed into notions of existence/' 

" The first words," says Dr. Russell, " which Adam is 
recorded to have spoken, are the names of animals ;" and if 
Adam had never had occasion to communicate his thoughts, 
he would not have experienced the want of other signs than 
those which represented distinct ideas, and these could have 
been only necessary to record his own thoughts. For this 
purpose Mr. Locke observes, " any words will serve the turn. 
For since sounds are voluntary and indifferent signs of any 
ideas, a man may use what words he pleases to signify his 
own ideas to himself, and there will be no imperfection in 
them, if he constantly use the same sign for the same idea, 
for then he cannot fail of having his meaning understood, 
wherein consists the right use and perfection of language." 

Every significant word, however modified or combined iu 
its application, is referable to some noun as its root, and 
from which it derives its primary signification ; but it does 
not necessarily follow that the name of a thing is always the 
most simple word of its class existing in the language. As 
far as the formation of words is concerned, the noun good- 
ness is derived from the adjective good ; but the restricted 
meaning of the adjective is derived from the abstract notion 
afterwards expressed by the term goodness. 

" Adjectives seem originally to have been derived from 
nouns substantive, of which they express a quality, as — a 
musky rose ; a beautiful lady ; a stormy day. Some of them 
are formed from the correspondent substantive, by adding the 
syllable ly or like, as — & lovely child ; a warlike countenance; 
and in our language it is frequently only necessary to put a 
hyphen between two nouns substantive, for the purpose of 
converting the former one into an adjective, as — an eagle-eye; 



204 PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 

a May-day. And many of our adjectives are substan- 
tives unchanged, and only known by their situation in a 
sentence, as — a German, or a German gentleman." 

" We do not mean to assert that all verbs are literally 
derived from nouns in any language ; because all languages 
have in process of time undergone such great variation ; 
many nouns having become obsolete or have perished, and 
new words have been imported from foreign languages, 
or transplanted from ancient ones ; but that this has originally 
been the construction of all verbs." 

"Thus there may appear some difficulty in analyzing from 
what noun substantive were formed the verbs to stand or to 
lie ; because we have not properly the name of the abstract 
ideas from which these words arose, except we use the same 
word for the participle and the noun substantive, as — 
standing, lying. But the verbs to sit, and to walk, are less 
difficult to trace their origin, as we have names for the nouns 
substantive, a seat, and a walk." — Darwin. Theory of 
Language. 

The verbal noun, " to walk," derives its signification from 
the abstract noun, a walk, and the names of both these nouns 
are probably derived from the substantive noun, a walk or 
path. 

Mr. Cobbett, however, makes no distinction between the 
abstract noun and the substantive noun, as the reader will 
perceive from the following erroneous criticism. 

" Mr. Murray, in an address to his students, tells them 
that ' he is about to offer them some advice with regard to 
their future walks in the paths of literature.' Now, says Mr. 
Cobbett, though a man may take a walk along a path, a walk 
means also the ground laid out in a certain shape, and such 
a walk is wider than a path." 

And this is all Mr Cobbett offers in proof that Mr. 
Murray's language is inaccurate. Need we say that the 
sentence, though figurative, is strictly correct, and that the 
writer did not mean garden walks nor gravelled walks, nor 
any walks of that kind, but such walks as the mind conceives 
to have been performed by the act of walking. 

It may appear presumptuous to offer any remarks on the 
application and meaning of words from the learned languages ; 






PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 205 

but, unfortunately, English grammar has been so confounded 
with the rules of other languages, and its professors so often 
illustrate the idioms of our tongue by comparing them with 
foreign idioms, that we are constrained to learn the rudiments 
of the Greek and Latin languages before we can pretend to 
understand the established rules of our own. 

The verbal noun, to read, is not a mood of the verb reading, 
but the name of that action. To read and reading, when 
used as nouns, have so far the same meaning," that they 
represent the action without affirmation, and thus lose their 
manner of signification as verbs or attributes. To read is 
easy, and reading is easy, are equivalent expressions ; Dr. 
Crombie has attempted to prove this fact : — 

" When I say leg ere est facile, ' to read is easy/ it is 
obvious there is only one sentence in each of these expres- 
sions : but if legere (to read) were a verb as well as est (is), 
then there would be two verbs, and also two affirmations, 
for affirmation is inseparable from a verb. I remark, also, 
that the verbal noun lectio reading, substituted for legere 
(to read), would precisely express the same sentiment/' 

Now, if lectio and legere have the same meaning as legens 
and legere, Dr. Crombie's conclusion is correct ; but if lectio 
means the lesson read, and legere the reading of it, then Dr. 
Crombie has done mischief, because he has obscured the 
truth of his former proposition. In Latin, perhaps, lectio 
has no more claim to be classed with verbal nouns than liber 
has ; but in English we know it has not, and that a lesson, a 
reading, are nouns of very different signification from the 
verbal nouns, to read, reading. 

These observations lead us to notice, in conclusion, the 
different kinds of nouns. First, names of real and permanent 
existences, as — water, earth, house, book Second, abstract 
nouns, which have only an ideal existence when abstractedly 
considered, as — the clearness of water, the fertility of the 
earth, the size of a house, the value of a book. Third, nouns 
which have a real, but transitory existence, depending on 
some agent for their being ; such nouns may be denominated 
verbal nouns : they comprehend all those names of actions 
or states of existence denoted by the infinitives and participles 
of that class of attributives called verbs. 



206 PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 

We shall conclude in the words of Mr. Tooke. " Though 
etymology, like the microscope, is sometimes useful to 
discover the minute parts of language, which would other- 
wise escape our sight, yet it is not necessary to have it 
always in our hands, nor proper to apply it to every 
object." 



THE INDEX, 



COMPRISING 



A DICTIONARY OF THE TECHNICAL WORDS 



COMMONLY USED BY WRITERS OX 



LANGUAGE AND ELOCUTION, 



WITH 



NOTES AND ADDITIONAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE 
RULES AND PRINCIPLES OF GRAMMAR. 



" The terms of grammar, it is exceedingly lamented, appear, and indeed are 
particularly to the young mind, difficult and often unintelligible." — Jennings. 



THE INDEX, 



A. 



A, the character that represents the 
first sound of the human voice. It 
has the precedence in most alphabets. 
The indefinite article a is a modifi- 
cation of the Saxon numeral ad- 
jective ane or an, and is used before 
nouns beginning with consonants, and, 
in some cases, before a noun beginning 
with a vowel or h aspirated, p. 34. 

The French who have not learned 
the English language grammatically 
confound the article a with the nu- 
meral adjective one, and say one man 
where they should say a man. 

Ab, a Latin prefix and preposition, as 
abscond. It denotes from, separating, 
departure, as absolve, abstract, absent. 

Abbreviation, in grammar, is two-fold, 
abbreviation of terms and abbrevia- 
tion in the manner of signification ; 
and " Upon these two points," says 
Mr. Tooke, " the respective excel- 
lence of every language depends. All 
their other comparative advantages 
are trifling." 

" Caesar came, saw, and conquered," 
is an abbreviation of tbe first kind, 
and is employed for the sake of dis- 
patch. 

The sign of the possessive case, 
and most of the indeclinable parts of 
speech, are instances of abbreviation 
in the manner of signification. It 
may be remarked, that all subordinate 
words possess this character and are 
used instead of tbe more significant 
terms to lessen the force of significa- 
tion. This important property of 
words, it is hoped, has been clearly 
developed in the etymology of the 
several parts of speech. 

Abbreviature, a shortening; a letter 
or letters put for a word, as R for Re- 
cipe, "take;" MSS. for manuscripta. 
manuscripts. Lists of abbreviations 
of this kind, with their explanations, 



may be found in most elementary 
works on grammar. The reader 
should be well acquainted with their 
meaning, but sparing in the use of 
them. The too frequent adoption of 
abbreviations for the sake of dispatch 
betrays a want of good taste, and is 
an indication of vulgar pedantry in a 
writer. 

The apostrophe may be considered 
an abbreviature when it is employed 
to denote that a letter is omitted, as 
o'er, ne'er, for over and never. 

Abecedarian, a teacher of the ABC, 
or alphabet. 

Ablative, the sixth case of Latin 
nouns. The declensions of nouns in 
Latin have six cases, both in the sin- 
gular and in the plural ; the nomina- 
tive, genitive, dative, accusative, vo- 
cative, and ablative. 

Ablative Absolute, that construction 
in which the participle is employed in- 
stead of the finite verb. p. 186. 

Abstract, to separate ideas. 

Abstract Nouns. The idea formed by 
abstracting any mode or quality from 
its noun, and contemplating the mode 
as having a distinct existence, is called 
an abstract idea, and the words that 
represent these abstract ideas are pro- 
perly denominated abstract nouns, as 
goodness, anger, modesty, temperance. 
From abstract nouus are derived ad- 
jectives, verbs, and adverbs. Mr. 
Tooke denies the existence of abstract 
ideas, and for no other apparent reason 
but because " The words not referring 
to any sensible objects are sometimes 
very difficult to define or explain ;" 
but it may be presumed that Mr. 
Tooke would not have denied that 
mankind imagine they have such ideas, 
and (however erroneous the opinion 
may be) the same ideas are generally 
supposed to represent real existences. 
" To convince people," says Mr. Locke, 
" of what moment it is to their under- 
p 



210 



INDEX. 



standings to be furnished with such 
abstract id^as, steady and settled in it, 
give me leave to ask, how any one 
shall be able to know whether he be 
obliged to be just if he has not esta- 
blished ideas in his mind of obligation 
and of justice, since knowledge con- 
sists in nothing but the perceived 
agreement or disagreement of those 



Abuse of words. " It is in the double 
or incomplete sense of words that we 
must look for the origin of a very 
large portion of the errors into which 
we fall." Herschal 

Abuse of words may originate 
either from affectation or ignorance, 
but the former is the more dangerous 
source of innovation. Figurative 
writers are not always satisfied with 
using appropriate terms, but, in order 
to give an appearance of novelty to 
what would otherwise appear trite, they 
too often pervert the original meaning 
of words, and thus sacrifice propriety 
to ornament. A writer of this kind, 
not contented with saying that " a 
word is no longer used by good 
writers,'' will declare it to be " repudi- 
ated by good writers;" another will 
speak of the " meretricious allure- 
ments of sophistry ;" and a third 
startles the illiterate with " canons," 
instead of rules, for deciding the pro- 
priety of discordant phraseologies. 
Acatalectic, a verse which has the 

complete number of syllables. 
Accent, as regards the English Lan- 
guage, means a certain stress of the 
voice upon a particular letter of a 
syllable, which distinguishes the sylla- 
ble from others of which the word 
may be composed, and also the letter 
from the rest. The great distinction 
of our accent depends upon the seat, 
which may be either upon a vowel or 
a consonant. When the accent is on 
the vowel the syllable is long, because 
the accent is made by dwelling upon 
the vowel, as vocal. When it is upon 
the consonant the syllable is short, 
because the accent is made by passing 
rapidly over the vowel and giving a 
smart stroke of the voice to the fol- 
lowing consonant, as volume. Ac- 
cent regulates the pronunciation of 
the English language ; those persons, 
therefore, who countenance unneces- 
sary changes in the accentuation of 
words are destroying the harmony of 
our best writers. The dry and harsh 
style of many authors may be owing, 
in a great degree, to the affectation of 
changing the accent of words that 



have been long established in the 
language. 

A native of Ireland or Scotland is 
distinguished from an Englishman 
more by his utterance than by his 
accent, but a well-educated English- 
man is distinguished from ordinary 
English speakers by the propriety of 
his accentuation, and the absense of 
provincialisms and a provincial tone. 
Accidence, a little book containing the 

first rudiments of grammar. 
Accident, in grammar, the property of 
a word. It is the property of a noun 
and of a pronoun to assume different 
forms to denote the relations they 
bear to other words in a sentence, 
and it is the property of a verb to 
vary its form to denote the person to 
whom the attribute expressed by the 
verb is said to belong, as write, writest, 
writes. 
Accusative, the fourth case of a Latin 
noun, corresponding with the objec- 
tive case of English grammarians. 
The accusative, which in Latin is 
known any where from its variation, 
is in English known only from its 
position or place ; it follows the verb. 
Acrostic, a poem in which the first 
letter and sometimes the last letter 
of every line is taken to form a 
name. 
Acroteleutic, words added to the end 

of a psalm or hymn as a doxology. 
Active voice of a verb, that form of 
the verbal attribute in winch doing or 
acting is implied, as I take, I carry, 
they assist. Active transitive verbs ne- 
cessarily require an object on which 
the very existence of the act and the 
attribute depend. The verb active, 
" to turn," is the putting an object 
into circular motion ; the verb neuter, 
" to turn," implies the state of being 
in circular motion, pp. 132 — 135. 
Acute, a term applied to the accent 
when it falls on a consonant, as 
up 'roar. 
Acyrology, careless or improper dic- 
tion. 
Adage, a proverb or trite saying. A 
copious and judicious selection of 
English proverbs has been published 
by Mr. Maunder, in his Treasury of 
Knowledge. 
Addendum, (pi. Addenda,) an appendix 
to a work. 

Some nouns taken from the Greek 
and other languages, instead of adding 
s to the singular, retain the original 
form of the plural. 
Adjective. Etymolgy of, p. 65. Syn- 
tax of, p. 72. 



INDEX. 



211 



There are two ways in which an 
adjective can stand in a proposition ; 
we can say " The horse is bad," or 
" A bad horse." In the first ex- 
ample horse is called the subject, is 
the copula or connecting link, and 
bad the predicate or qualifying term. 
But we cannot (as the author of 
the foregoing illustration supposes) 
say with propriety, " The man walks 
slow, he rides quick, he talks loud" for 
the words slow, quick, and loud qualify 
their respective verbs, and being used 
as adverbs, require the termination ly 
to denote their manner of significa- 
tion. There are, it is true, some 
words that are used both as adjectives 
and adverbs, but this use of the ad- 
jective is to be considered rather as a 
defect in the language than as conso- 
nant with the English idiom, or as 
conformable to the true principles of 
construction. It is because the mind 
perceives the impropriety, and feels 
the want of the necessary distinction, 
that usage is now beginning to be 
opposed to this mode of expression. 
Instead of saying, " He speaks low," 
it would be more correct to say, " He 
speaks in a low voice. " The reason 
that the adverbial phrase appears ne- 
cessary here is, that the word lowly 
is an adjective, and suggests the 
meaning of meek, humble, mild. 
Lowlily is an adverb derived from 
the adjective lowly, and of the same 
signification; therefore the adverb 
lowly, as opposed to loudly, appears 
inadmissible, and from some cause of 
this kind the difiiculty of forming 
some adverbs in ly may be traced. 

Adjectively, a word used in the man- 
ner of an adjective to denote some pro- 
perty or quality of a noun. Many 
substantive nouns are thus employed, 
as house agent, land surveyor, p. 65. 

Adnoun, a term synonymous with ad- 
jective, p. 65. 

Some grammarians have endea- 
voured to introduce the term adnoun 
instead of adjective, but it has been 
justly observed, that though the word 
adjective is not a very good name, ad- 
noun is no better. 

Adverb. Etymology of, p. 140. Syn- 
tax of, p. 148. 

JEclogue, a pastoral poem. 

Agent, that which acts. The subject 
of an active verb. 

Agreement, see Concord, p. 55. 

Alexandrine, a verse consisting of 
twelve syllables. 

Allegory, a figurative discourse, in 
which something is intended that is 



not contained in the words literally 
taken. 

Alliteration is the beginning two or 
more w r ords with the same letter, " as 

^"soft sleep, profoundly pleasing power." 

Allocution, the act of speaking to an- 
other. 

Alphabet, the characters representing 
the elementary sounds of a language. 
" It is much to be lamented," says 
Dr. Darwin, " that tbe alphabet, 
which has produced and preserved 
almost all the improvements in other 
arts and sciences, should have itself 
received no improvement in modern 
times, which have added so much 
elucidation to almost every branch of 
knowledge that can meliorate the con- 
dition of humanity ; thus, in our pre- 
sent alphabets, many letters are re- 
dundant, others are wanting : some 
simple articulate sounds have two 
letters to suggest them, and in other 
instances two articulate sounds are 
suggested by one letter." 

Altiloquence, pompous language. 

Altisonant, high sounding; pompous 
in sound. 

Amanuensis, one who writes what an- 
other dictates, or copies what has 
been written. 

Ambages, a circuit of words, a multi- 
plicity of words. 

Ambiguity, doubtfulness of meaning, 
uncertainty of signification. 

Ambilogy, talk of ambiguous significa- 
tion. 

Amphibology, discourse of uncertain 
meaning. 

Amphibrach, a foot of three syllables, 
having the middle one long and the 
others short, as habere. 

Amplification, exaggerated represent- 
ation. 

An, the indefinite article put before 
nouns beginning with a vowel or a 
silent h, pp. 24—39. 

An, conjunction, p. 167. 

Anagram, a conceit arising from the 
letters of a name transposed so as to 
form some other word or sentence. 

Anadiplosis, reduplication, a figure in 
rhetoric. 

Analogy is used by grammarians to 
signify the agreement of several words 
in one common mode. 

" The English grammar lays down 
a good rule with reBpect to its parti- 
ciples of the past, that they all termi- 
nate in d, t, or n. This analogy is 
perhaps liable to as few exceptions as 
any. Considering, therefore, how 
little analogy of any kind we have in 
our language, it seems wrong to an- 



212 



INDEX. 



niliilate the few traces that may be 
found. It would be well, therefore, 
if all writers who endeavour to be 
accurate would be careful to avoid a 
corruption at present so prevalent, of 
saying it was wrote for it was written, 
he was drove for he was driven, I 
have went for / have gone, &c. ; in all 
which instances a verb is absurdly 
used to supply the proper participle 
without any necessity from the want 
of such a word." 

Anamnesis, a figure in rhetoric ; it calls 
to mind what has been omitted. 

Anapest, a foot consisting of three 
syllables, two short and one long, 
the reverse of the dactyle. 

A naphora, a figure when several clauses 
of a sentence are begun with the same 
word. 

Anastrophe, a figure whereby words 
which should have been precedent are 
postponed. 

And, conj. p. 166. 

Anecdote, something yet unpublished. 

Anglicise, to make English. 

Anglicism, an English idiom ; a mode 
of speech peculiar to the English. 

Annals, history digested in the order 
of years. 

Annotation, a note, an explication. 

Annotator, a writer of notes, a com- 
mentator. 

Anomaly, a deviation from common 
rule. 

Antanaclasis, a figure in rhetoric 
when the same word is repeated in a 
different but not in a contrary signifi- 
tion. 

Antanagoge, a figure which consists 
in replying to an adversary by way of 
recrimination, as when the accusation 
of one party is unanswerable, the ac- 
cused person charges him with the 
same or another crime. 

Ante, a Latin preposition, signifying 
before, frequently used in composition, 
as antemeridian. 

Antecedent, in grammar, the noun to 
which the relative refers. 

Antepenult, the last syllable but two. 

Anteposition, in grammar, the placing 
of one word before another. 

Anthorism, in rhetoric, a description 
or definition contrary to that which 
is given by the adverse party. 

Anthypophora, a figure in rhetoric, 
which signifies a contrary illation or 
inference. 

Anti, a particle much used in composi- 
tion, and signifies contrary to. 

Anticlimax, a sentence in which the 
last part expresses something lower 
than the first. See Climax. 



Antihypophora, a figure which con- 
sists in refuting an objection by the 
opposition of a contrary sentence. 

Antilogy, a contradiction between 
words. 

Antiloquy, a word denoting preface, / 
proem, or peroration. 

Antimetrical, contrary to the rules of 
metre or verse. 

Antiphrasis, the use of words in a 
sense opposite to their proper meaning. 

Antiptosis, a figure in grammar by 
which one case is put for another. 

Antistrophe. In an ode sung in parts 
is the second stanza of every three 
and sometimes every second stanza. 

Antistrophon, a figure which repeats 
a word often. 

Antithesis, a figure in rhetoric which 
illustrates by the introduction of con- 
traries. 

" By honour, and dishonour ; by evil 
report, and good report ; as deceivers, 
and yet true; as unknown, and yet 
well known ; as dying, and behold we 
live ; as chastened, and not killed ; 
as sorrowful, yet always rejoicing; 
as poor, yet making many rich; as 
having nothing, yet possessing all 
things." 

Aorist, indefinite; a term applied to 
certain tenses of the verb in Greek. 
It is stated that an ancient Greek 
verb, with its participles, consists of 
eleven hundred terminations ; a mo- 
dern Greek verb has no more than an 
Italian one. 

Aparlthmesis, a figure in rhetoric; 
enumeration. 

Aphc5resis, a figure in grammar that 
takes away a letter or syllable from 
the beginning of a word. 

Aphorism, a short select sentence, a 
general maxim or rule in any art or 
science. 

Apocope, a figure in grammar, whereby 
the last syllable or letter is cut off, 
as, as th' for the. 

Apocryphal, of uncertain authority. 

Apodioxis, a figure in rhetoric, whereby 
an argument is with indignation re- 
jected as absurd. 

Apodixis, a plain proof or evident de- 
monstration. 

Apodosis, in rhetoric, is called reddi- 
tion, which is the application or latter 
part of a similitude. 

Apologue, a fable or story inculcating J j 
some moral truth. 

Apopemptic, denoting a song or hymn 
among the ancients, sung or addressed 
to a stranger on his departure from a 
place. 

Apophasis, a figure by which the orator 



INDEX. 



213 



seems to wave what he would plainly 
insinuate, as 

" I might speak concerning your 
youth, which you have spent in the 
most abandoned profligacy, if I appre- 
hended this to be a proper season, but 
I now purposely wave it " 

Apophthegm, a short instructive sen- 
tence. 

Aporia, a figure by which the speaker 
doubts where to begin. 

Aposiopesis, a form of speech by which 
the speaker, through some affection or 
vehemency, breaks off his speech, as 
" she is — but I will forbear." 

The aposiopesis gives that energy 
which words cannot express, and hence 
it is that silence in some cases will 
have greater power than a diffusive 
eloquence. 

Apostrophe, in grammar, is a mark 
expressed thus ' shewing that there is 
a letter omitted, as ne'er for never, 
lov'd for loved. It is also employed 
as the sign of the possessive case. 

Apostrophe, in rhetoric, is a figure in 
which the speaker breaks off to ad- 
dress some person or object, and is 
judged most proper when applied to 
absent persons or inanimate beings. 

Apothegm, see Apophthegm. 

Aporime, a figure in rhetoric, when one 
is at a loss what to say. 

Appellative, a name common to all of 
the same species, as city, house, river, 
flower. 

Appendix, (pi. Appendixes,) a supple- 
ment to a treatise by way of addition 
or illustration. 

Apposition, the putting of two nouns 
in the same case. 

Aptoton, a noun that is not declined 
with cases. 
' Archaiology, a discourse of antiquity. 

Archaism, an ancient phrase. 

Archetype, the original of which any 
resemblance is made. 

Argument, the subject of any discourse 
or writing ; the contents of any work 
summed up by way of abstract 

Article. Etymology of, p. 24. Syn- 
tax of, p. 31. 

Articulation, the act of forming words. 
" What is called articulation is per- 
formed, not by the lungs, windpipe, 
or larynx, but by the action of the 
throat, palate, teeth, tongue, lips, and 
nostrils. Articulation begins not till 
the breath or voice has passed through 
the larynx." 

Asperate, to roughen. 

Aspirate, the mark to denote an aspi- 
rated pronunciation. 

Aspirated, uttered by the breath. The 






letter h in most words is said to be 
aspirated, as a horse, a high place, not 
a norse, a nigh place. 
Association, that faculty of the mind 
on which memory chiefly depends. 

" Lulled in the countless chambers of the 

brain, 
Our thoughts are linked by many a hidden 

chain. 
Awake but one, and lo ! what myriads rise ; 
Each stamps its image as the other flies ; 
Each thrills the seat of sense, that sacred 

source, 
Whence the fine nerves direct their mazy 

course." 

Asterisk, * a mark used in printing, 
usually referring to a marginal note. 

Asyndeton, a figure in grammar, when 
a conjunction copulative is omitted. 
The asyndeton leaves out the con- 
necting particles to represent the ce- 
lerity of an action, or the haste and 
eagerness of the speaker. 

Atticism, an imitation of the attic style, 
a concise and elegant mode of ex- 
pression. 

Authority, in grammar, a passage 
quoted from a classical writer to show 
the propriety of a word or phrase, p. 9. 
" No authority, however respect- 
ble, can sanction inconsistency; and 
great names, though they may be 
honoured by ignorance and credulity 
with the most obsequious homage, 
will never pass with the intelligent 
reader either for demonstration or 
argument." — Crombie. 

Autograph, one's own writing. Au- 
tographs of eminent characters are 
frequently collected by the curious ; 
they are certainly more valuable than 
specimens of moths and butterflies. *- 

Auxesis, amplification; a rhetorical 
figure, when any thing is magnified 
too much. 

Auxiliary Verbs, p. 112. Remarks 
on, p. 115. 

Axiom, a self-evident principle, which is 
so clear in itself that it is not capable 
of being made clearer by any kind of 
proof. It is an old maxim, that no- 
thing is more difficult than to PROVE 
the truth of a self-evident axiom, or 
that which is obvious to the sense of 
all mankind. 



B. 



B, the second letter of the alphabet, 
said to be " neither a perfect mute nor 
a perfect consonant, but something 
between both." See p. 8. 

Bacchius, in ancient poetry, a foot com- 
posed of a short syllable and two long 
ones, as hdnestds. 



214 



INDEX. 



Ballad, a popular song, a ditty. 

Barbara, a technical word, each of 
whose syllables prefixed before the 
propositions of a syllogism in the first 
mood and first figure, denote the uni- 
versal affirmation of the propositions. 

Baralipton, in logic, an imperfect 
syllogism of two universals and a par- 
ticular affirmative. 

Barbarism, " an impropriety of speech, 
any term or expression totally unsup- 
ported by the present usage of good 
writers. Ex. ' I rode in a one horse 
chat).' It ought to be ' a one horse 
chaise :' there is no such word as chay. 
" Ungrate is a barbarism. Ingrate 
is to be found in some of our English 
poets as an adjective, and synonymous 
with ' ungrateful ;' but ungrate, as a 
substantive, is truly barbarous." — 
Crombie. 

Baroco, a syllogistic mood in logic. 

Barytone, a word with the grave ac- 
cent on the last syllable. " If the in- 
spector does not know what is meant by 
the grave accent, it may be necessary to 
inform him, that writers on the Greek 
accent tell us that every syllable which 
has not the acute accent has the grave, 
and as there could be but one syllable 
acuted in that language, the rest must 
necessarily be grave. What these ac- 
cents are has puzzled the learned so 
much that they seem neither to un- 
derstand each other nor themselves ; 
but it were to be wished they had 
kept this distinction into acute and 
grave out of our own language, as it 
is impossible to annex any clear ideas 
to it, except we consider the grave 
accent merely as the absence of the 
acute, which renders it no accent at 
all. If we divide the voice into its 
two leading inflections, the rising and 
falling, and call the former the acute 
and the latter the grave, we can an- 
nex distinct ideas to these words, and 
perhaps it is an ignorance of this dis- 
tinction of speaking sounds, and con- 
founding them with high and low, or 
loud and soft, that occasions the con- 
fusion we meet with in writers on 
this subject." — Walker. 

Bathos, sinking in poetry. The au- 
thor of the " Treatise of the Art of 
Sinking in Poetry," observes, " That 
to excel in the bathos, a genius is re- 
requisite ; yet the rules of art must be 
allowed to be so far useful as to add 
weight, or, as I may say, hang on, 
lead to facilitate and enforce our 
descent ; to guide us to the most ad- 
vantageous declivities, and habituate 
our imagination to a depth of thinking." 



Battologist, one who repeats the same 
thing in speaking or writing. 

Battology, vain repetition of the same 
words, babbling 

Be, the substantive verb, p. 1 12. 

Because, conj. p. 176. 

Being, existence, p. 134. 

Belles Lettres, polite literature. 

Bible, emphatically called the Book. 

y It is gratifying to reflect, that while 
the excellent translation of the Bible 
remains unpoluted by the hand of the 
fastidious critic, there will exist a 
standard of propriety in the English 
language, affording the best security 
for the stability of our mother tongue. 
There is one proof of the divine 
origin of the Bible, which appears too 
obvious to have escaped notice, that, 
while the language of contemporary 
authors has gradually lost its fresh- 
ness, and partially become obsolete, 
this Book has retained its vigour of 
expression and its power of conviction 
in every state of human society, and in 
every condition of human life. 

Bibliomania, the rage of possessing 
scarce or curious books. 

Bibliopolist, a bookseller. 

Biographer, a writer of lives. 

Biography, a writing the lives of men. 

Blank verse, verses without rhymes, i^ 

Blair, Dr., on the rise and progress of 
the English language, p. 195. 

Brachygraphy, the art of writing short 
hand. 

Brachylogy, in rhetoric, the express- 
ing anything in the most concise 
manner. 

Breviloquence, a short and apt mode 
of speaking. 

Brevity, shortness, conciseness. 

Brogue, corrupt accent and intonation. 

Bucolics, pastoral songs or poems, in 
which country swains are represented 
as discoursing together. 

Burlesque, that kind of writing which 
tends to excite laughter. 

But, conj. p. 178. 

By, prep. p. 152. 



C has two sounds, one like k, which is 
called its hard sound, as in cat, the 
other like s, called its soft sound, as 
in city, celestial, cypress. C sounds 
like k before a consonant, and before 
the vowels a, o, u, and like s before the 
vowels e, i, and y. 

Cacography, incorrect spelling. 

Cacology, corrupt pronunciation, as 
Lunnun for London. 

Cacophony, or a harsh sound of words. 



INDEX. 



215 



Cadence, the fall of the voice ; the flow 

of verses or periods. 
C^sura, a figure in poetry, by which a 

short syllable after a complete foot is 

made long ; a pause in verse. 
Cant, to talk in the jargon of thieves 

and blackguards. 
Canto, a book or section of a poem. 
Cardinal Numbers are such as express 

the number of things, as one, two, 

three, &c. 
Caret, a mark placed between words 

to show that something has been 
am 

omitted, as " I very sorry." This 

A 

sign has been named by Mr. Cobbett 
the blunder mark. 

Case, the variation of a noun or pro- 
noun, p. 52. 

Catachresis, the abuse of a trope, when 
the words are too far wrested from 
their original signification, as a beauti- 
ful apple, a sweet girl, instead of a 
sweet apple, a. beautiful girl. 

Catalectic, wanting a syllable in ver- 
sification. 

Catastrophe, the final event of a dra- 
matic piece. 

Category, an order of ideas, a pre- 
dicament. 

Cause, that which produces any thing. 

Cedilla, a mark placed under the c in 
French to denote that it is to be 
sounded like s. 

Charade, a species of riddle. 

Circumflex [a], a mark employed to 
denote the union of the grave and 
the acute accent. 

" All our prosodiests tell us that the 
circumflex accent is a composition of 
the grave and the acute, or that it is 
a raising aud falling of the voice upon 
the same syllable. If they are de- 
sired to exemplify this by actual pro- 
nunciation, we find they cannot do it, 
and only pay us with words. This 
accent, therefore, in the ancient as 
well as modern languages, with re- 
spect to sound, has no specific utility." 
Walker. 

Circumlocution, the use of many 
words, or of indirect expressions. 

Classic, an author of the first rank. 

Clause, a part of a compound sentence 
or period. " The ox knoweth his 
owner,— and the ass his master's crib ; 
— but Israel doth not know, — my 
people do not consider." This sen- 
tence consists of two compounded 
members, each of which is subdivided 
into two simple members, which are 
properly called clauses. 



Climax, a figure in rhetoric, by which 
the force of expression in a sentence 
rises gradually in strength and dignity, 
as " The boy despises the infant, the 
man the boy, the philosopher both, 
and the Christian all." 

Mr. Cobbett, in his excellent intro- 
ductory letter to his English Gram- 
mar, furnishes an example of the 
climax : " To ignorant pretenders to 
surgery and medicine we award our 
contempt and scorn; on time-serv- 
ing and treacherous counsellors, and 
on cruel judges, we inflict our detes- 
tation and abhorrence ; while on 
rapacious, corrupt, perfidious, or tyran- 
ranical statesmen and legislators, the 
voice of human nature cries aloud for 
execration and vengeance." 

The Anticlimax, as the term im- 
plies, is opposed to the climax, as 

" Not only London echoes with thy fame, 
But also Islinglon has heard the same." 

Collective nouns are such as denote 
objects composed of a number of in- 
dividuals, as an army, the parliament, 
a mob. 

Colloquial, relating to common con- 
versation. 

Colon, a point or stop in grammar 
marked thus [:], distinguishing the 
principal division of a compound sen- 
tence. 

Comma, a point denoting a less division 
of a compound sentence than those 
separated by a semicolon or colon. 

Comment, an exposition, remark, or 
observation. 

Common nouns, those that represent a 
class or species, p. 41 . 

Comparative degree expresses the in- 
crease of a quality as compared with 
the same quality in another object, 
p. 69. 

Complex, not simple. 

Compound sentence is that which has 
more than one proposition expressed, 
and in which the simple sentences are 
joined by one or more connecting 
words. 

Composition, in grammar, is the act of 
joining words or sentences. 

Con, an inseparable preposition, which 
at the beginning of words signifies 
union or association. 

Concord, the agreement of words in 
construction, p. 55. 

Concrete, in logic, is any quality con- 
sidered with its subject; thus, when 
we say, snow is white, we speak of 
whiteness in the concrete, and in this 
respect it is contra-distinguished from 



216 



INDEX. 



the abstract, when the quality is con- 
sidered separately, as whiteness. 

Conditional mood, see subjunctive 
mood, p. 130. 

Conjugate, to vary a verb according to 
its several moods, tenses and persons. 

Conjugation, the inflection of verbs, 
p. 123. 

Conjunction. Etymology of, p. 165. 
Syntax of, p. 186. 

Connectives, such words as serve to 
unite the members or clauses of a 
sentence. 

Consonants are those letters of the 
alphabet which cannot be fully sound- 
ed without the aid of vowels. They 
are divided into mutes ; b, d, k, p, t, 
and c and g hard ; semivowels, l,f, m, n, 
r, s, v, x, z, and c and g soft. Four of 
the semivowels, /, m, n, r, are also 
called liquids, from their readily unit- 
ing with other consonants. 
., It has been remarked, " that the 
V' consonants are the nerves and sinews 
of a language. Nothing contributes 
more to clearness, distinctness, and 
force in the delivery of a public reader 
or speaker than his perfecting the 
articulation of every consonant which 
custom will allow to be sounded in the 
common pronunciation of every word 
in the language." 

Construction is the arrangement of 
words in a sentence, so as to convey 
the precise meaning of the speaker or 
writer. 

Under this term we select as an ex- 
ample a phrase of very frequent occur- 
rence, but the propriety of which still 
appears undecided by grammarians: 
Ex. " It was then that the two first 
chapters of the first book were com- 
posed." This construction is sanction- 
ed by some grammarians solely be- 
cause "usage is decidedly in favour 
of the phraseology;'' nay, it has 
been asserted that the first two is 
equally objectionable. In defence of 
the last phraseology, we remark, that 
the mind at once perceives that there 
cannot be two first chapters to one 
book, and that the phrase, " the two 
first," is evidently incorrect. It is 
true, every one knows that the first 
and second chapters are alluded to; 
but since there is a choice of expres- 
sion, and the phrase, " the first two," 
is equally intelligible, why is not that 
idiom which is irreconcilable with 
truth superseded by one which may 
be tolerated, and which, although 
perhaps not in every case strictly 
correct, is sufficiently so to define the 



numbers of a series thus distributively 
considered, for we may, and often do, 
for convenience sake, suppose the in- 
dividuals of a series arranged into 
pairs, &c, though no such arrange- 
ment actually exists ; and thus we are 
enabled to compare the first two chap- 
ters of a book with the second two, or 
in any other combination which we 
may think proper. But it is not true 
that the " first two" and the " two 
first" are equivalent expressions, and 
this may be seen by comparing the 
following example with the preceding. 
" The three first tenses" says Mr. 
Harris, in his Hermes, " we call the 
inceptive present, the inceptive past, 
and the inceptive future; the three 
next, the middle present, the middle 
past, and the middle future ; and the 
three last, the completive present, the 
completive past, and the completive 
future." The author, in this ex- 
ample, refers to three firsts as the lead- 
ing individuals of three series. The 
expression, " the first three," in this 
instance, would have been incorrect, 
and would have misled the reader, by 
implying that the three individuals of 
the first series had been referred to, 
whereas, the author refers every time 
to three individuals belonging to sepa- 
rate series ; the three first, the three 
next, the three last 

" The order of the letters," says 
Dr. Russell, "are called alphabet from 
the first two Greek letters." 

Will any one contend, that " the 
two first" in this example would have 
been equally proper ? Beta is not a 
first letter, though alpha and beta are 
the first two. 

These remarks will, perhaps, appear 
trifling ; but it should be remembered 
that every disputed point in grammar 
presents a difficulty to the learner, 
and that no pains should be spared to 
remove any doubt as to the propriety 
of giving a preference to one con- 
struction rather than to another. 

Construe, to interpret, to explain. 

" It is a scandal to seminaries of 
learning that the pronunciation con- 
stur for construe should prevail there. 
Those who ought to be the guardians 
of propriety are often the perverters 
of it." — Walker. 

Copula, the third person singular of 
the verb to be ; the word that simply 
affirms and unites the subject and 
predicate of a proposition, p. 110. 

Corrigenda, words to be altered or cor- 
rected by the reader. 



D. 



D, the sound of this letter in English 

is uniform ; it is never mute. 
Dactyle, a poetical foot, consisting of 

one long syllable and two short. 
Dactylogy, the art of conversing by 

the hands. 
Darwin, on the origin of language, 

p. 192. 
Dash ( — ), a mark used in writing. 
Data, truths admitted. 
Dative, in grammar the case that sig- 
nifies the person to whom any thing 
is given. 
Datum, a truth granted and admitted. 
Declamation, a discourse addressed to 

the passions. 
Declamatory, appealing to the pas- 
sions. 
Declaratory, affirmative. 
Declension, the inflection of a noun. 
The only variation that a noun admits 
of in English, (except the modifica- 
tion to denote the plural number) is 
that which denotes possession, as my 
father's house. The pronoun admits 
of two variations, one denoting the 
relation of property, as my, in the pre- 
ceding example ; the other denoting 
that the object is connected with the 
the principal noun, and is governed by 
a verb or preposition, as, " He accuses 
me." 
Defective nouns, such as are indecli- 
nable. 
Defective verbs, which want some of 

their moods, persons, or tenses. 
Define, to explain any thing by its 

qualities, or otherwise. 
Definite Article, p. 34. 
Definitive, that which defines. 
Degrees of comparison, p. 69. 
Dele, blot out ; erase. 
Demonstrative pronouns, p. 85. 
Denominate, to name. 
Deponent verbs are those that have no 

active voice. 
Derivation. The tracing a word from 
its original, p. 1 94. Dr. 1 )arvvin ob- 
serves " that the word sack is said to 
mean a bag in all European countries, 
as (tcikkov in Greek, saccus in Latin, 
sacco in Italian, sac in French, and 
sack in English and German." But 
the author might have traced this 
word still farther, for it originates 
from the Hebrew. Yet, of what 
utility is a knowledge of this fact ? 
As far as language is concerned, the 
result of the inquiry is of little im- 
portance. The term sack is inde- 
pendent of derivation, and cannot 
well be misapplied. Nor would the 



INDEX. 217 



meaning of the word in this in- 
stance be better understood, if it were 
possible to ascertain under what 
circumstances the thing called a sack 
acquired its name. It would be only 
going still farther beyond the point 
that separates what is useful from 
what is curious or amusing It has 
been observed that as far as the 
exact meaning of any word depends 
on the circumstances that gave rise to 
the term, it is of great importance to 
trace the origin of the word, and to 
refer to its original application in 
order to determine its signification. 
In proof of this, we quote one exam- 
ple from the many that might be ad- 
duced, shewing the necessity of attend- 
ing to the origin of words, when the 
meaning to be attached to them is to be 
found only in the original application. 
The term Laconic has its origin from 
the people of Laconia, who were re- 
markable for conciseness of expres- 
sion; a person acquainted with this 
circumstance would hardly misapply 
the term ; but one not very well read ' 
in ancient history observed, that a 
certain celebrated orator had made a 
very laconic speech, which lasted 
nearly four hours. — Here the term 
laconic was used instead of sarcastic. 
Derivative, a word formed from ano- 
ther word, and participating in the 
signification expressed by its primi- 
tive. 

Most words, in every language, are 
found to be derivatives. If those 
who are learning a language were to 
direct their attention to the primi- 
tives, and endeavour- to ascertain the 
precise signification attached by cor- 
rect writers to those words, the labour 
of acquiring the meaning of the deri- 
vatives would be greatly abridged ; 
besides it should be remembered that 
any defect in our knowledge of the 
meaning of the primitive must neces- 
sarily obscure our conception of the 
signification to be attached to the de- 
rivative; hence the importance of 
attending to the circumstances that 
gave to words their primary meaning ; 
but it is not always practicable, nor is 
it absolutely necessary, to trace a word 
to its origin ; thus a person having ac- 
quired the meaning of the verb to deri- 
vate or derive, would immediately 
become acquainted with the several 
parts of speech springing from that 
verb ; it would be found that the word 
derivative was formed to mark the 
property of a word derivated or deri- 
ved from another word, and thoiigh 
Q 



218 



INDEX. 



used at first as an adjective, at length 
became the name of that class of 
words; that deriver was one who 
draws from the source ; that deriva- 
tion was the act of drawing from the 
source, and, as applied to language, 
means the tracing a word from its 
original ; and that derivatively was a 
term differing from its corresponding 
adjective only in its manner of signifi- 
cation. 
Descant, a song or tune composed in 

parts ; also to discourse at large. 
Determinate, settled, fixed, definite, 

conclusive. 
Dleresis, a mark placed over a vowel 
to shew that it is to be pronounced as 
a distinct syllable, as aerial. 
Dialogue, a conversation between two 

persons. 
Dialysis, a figure in rhetoric by which 

syllables or words are divided. 
Diaporesis, in rhetoric, wherein the 
orator seems to doubt which subject 
should have the preference. 
Diasyrmus, a figure in ldietoric, by 
which a person or thing is commended 
by way of derision. 
Diatribe, a continued discourse or dis- 
putation. 
Diatyposis, a desmption wherein things 
are represented in so lively a manner 
that they seem as it were before our 
eyes. 
Dicacious, talkative. 
Dictamen, a thing written by another's 

instruction. 
Dictate, to direct another what to 

write. 
Diction, style, language, expression. 
Dictionary, a collection of the words of 

any language in alphabetical order. 
Didactic, instructive. 
Definitive, determinate. 
Diminutive, a word formed to express 

littleness, as — deviUirc, a little devil. 
Diphthong, the union of two vowels 
pronounced by a single impulse of the 
voice, as pain, laugh, laudable. 

Diphthongs are called proper when 
both the vowel sounds are heard, as 
in pain, laudable ; they are called im- 
proper when only one of the vowel 
sounds is uttered, as in laugh. " The 
coalition oi" says Dr. Johnson, '' ap- 
proaches more nearly than any com- 
bination in our tongue to the notion 
of a diphthong." In "the vulgar 
pronunciation of this diphthong the 
sound of i only is distinctly uttered, 
as tile, bile, nisome, for toil, boil, 
noisome." 

The following are the diphthongs 
in the English language, which, from 



,D 



being thus arranged, may be easily 
committed to memory. 

aa se ai ao au aw ay 
ea ee ei eo eu ew ey 
oa ce oi oo ou ow oy 
ie ue ui 

Diptote, a noun consisting of two cases 
only. 

Disjunctive conjunctions are such as 
denote an opposition in the meaning 
of the clauses of a compound sen- 
tence. 

Dissylable, a word of two syllables. 

Distich, two verses. 

Distributive ; the pronouns each, every, 
either, are called by some gramma- 
rians distributives. 

Dithyrambic, a song in honour of Bac- 
chus, wild, enthusiastic. 

Do, irr. verb, p. 117. 

Doing, applicable to verbs active tran- 
sitive. The distinction between " be- 
ing " as implied by a neuter verb, and 
" doing " as implied by an active tran- 
sitive verb, may be perceived in the 
following awkward attempt to form 
a new verb. " The "originals "of the 
Poem Watty and Meg were a worthy 
couple of Wilson's acquaintance. 
When the good dame read the poem 
she exclaimed to her husband ' D'ye 
ken what Sandy Wilson has done? 
he has poemed us ! ' " 

Doggerel, a term applicable to mean 
contemptible poetry. 

Drama, a poem accommodated to ac- 
tion ; a poem in which the action is 
not related but represented, and in 
which, therefore, such rules are to be 
observed as make the representation 
probable. 

Dunce, a person incapable of instruction. 

Duration, remarks on, p. 131. 

E. 

E is the most frequent vowel in the 
English language, for it not only is 
used like the rest, but it has the pecu- 
liar quality of lengthening the fore- 
going vowel, as can, cane, pin, pine. 

Edited, published, corrected, prepared 
for publication. 

Editor, one that revises any work for 
publication. 

Educate, to instruct youth ; to nurture 
or bring up. 

Egotism, the fault committed in writing, 
or in conversation, by the too fre- 
quent repetition of the personal pro- 
noun /. 

Elegy, a mournful poem, a funeral 
song. 

Elements, the letters of any language 



INDEX. 



are called its elements, because they 
are the constituent parts of artificial 
speech. 
Elenchus, a sophistical argument. 
Ellipsis, a figure in rhetoric, in which 
something is left out, and in grammar, 
the omission of words for the sake of 
dispatch, or to avoid prolixhy and use- 
less repetitions. 

Grammatical ellipsis is altogether 
different from the figurative. In con- 
versation and familiar writing the 
former is to be found in almost every 
sentence, and is no indication of emo- 
tion. Its end is mere brevity. We 
have a fine example of figurative el- 
lipsis in the words of Isaac, on dis- 
covering that he was deceived in con- 
ferring the blessing. 

Ex. " Who ? where is he that hath 

taken venison and brought it me ? " 

( Gen. ch. xxvii. v. 33. ) 
EloquEx^ce, the power of speaking with 

fluency and elegance. 
Emphasis, the peculiar stress of the voice 
on the important words of a sentence. 
If the reader, or speaker, attend to the 
sense of what he is reading or saying, 
rather than to the manner of exl 
pressing himself, he will not err 
greatly in the delivering of his own 
sentiments or those of another. 
Emphatic words are frequently printed 
in a different type, lest the weight to 
be attached to them should be over- 
looked by the reader. 
En, an inseparable particle borrowed 
from the French, and by the French 
formed from the Latin in. Many 
words are written en or in, as entire, 
intire. En is changed into em before 
some letters for more easy pronun- 
ciation. 
Enallage, a figure of grammar whereby 
some change is made of the common 
modes of speech, as when one mood 
or tense of a verb is put for another, 
as " I go to town to-morrow." 
Enclitic, a word added to the end of 
another word, as que, ne, ve, in Latin. 
Encyclopedia, the whole circle or com- 
pass of learning which comprehends 
all the liberal arts and sciences. 
Endorsed, registered on the back of a 

writing, superscribed. 

Enigma, a riddle ; an obscure question. 

Enthymeme, in logic, a syllogism where 

the major proposition is wanting, and 

only the minor and consequence is 

expressed in words. 

Enunciation, manner of utterance; 

also a declaration. 
Ep epi, in composition usually signifies 



219 



Epenthesis, the addition of a vowel or 

consonant in the middle of a word. 
Epicene, the common gender of Latin 

nouns. 
Epic, a poem not acted, but rehearsed 

usually heroic. 
Epigram, a short witty poem. 
Epilogue, the poem or speech at the 

end of a play. 
Epiphonema, a figure in rhetoric; an 
exclamation; a conclusive sentence 
not closely connected with the words 
foregoing. 
Epiploce, a figure in rhetoric, by which 
one aggravation or circumstance is 
added to another. 
Episode, a digression in a poem sepa- 
rable from the main subject, yet 
arising naturally from it. 
Epistolary, relating to letters. 
Epistrophe, a rhetorical figure which 
concludes each member of a sentence 
with the same word. 
Epitaph, an inscription upon a tomb. 
Lpitasis, the progress of a plot in a 

drama. 
Epithet, a word added to a noun to ex- 
press some quality, as a noble person. 
Epitome, an abridgment or summary 
Epitrope, a rhetorical figure in which 
a concession is made with a view to 
obtain an advantage. 
Equivocal, uncertain, doubtful. 

" An equivocal expression is one 
which has one sense open, and de- 
signed to be understood, another 
sense, concealed, and understood only 
by the person who uses it. An am- 
biguous expression is one which has 
apparently two senses, and leaves us 
at a loss which of them to give it. An 
equivocal expression is used with an 
intention to deceive; an ambiguous 
one, when it is used with design, is 
with intention not to give full in- 
formation. An honest man will never 
employ an equivocal expression, a 
confused man may often utter ambi- 
guous ones without any design." 

Mr. Tooke complained that he had 
been made the miserable victim of the 
conjunction that, and the prepositions 
of and concerning. » Mankind in ge- 
neral," says that writer, " are not suf- 
ficiently aware that words without 
meaning, or of equivocal meauing, are 
the everlasting engines of fraud and 
injustice, and that the grimqribber 
o Westminster Hall is a more fer- 
tile and a much more formidable 
source of imposture than the abraca- 
dabra of magicians." 
Errata, faults or omissions which have 
escaped correction in printing. 



220 



INDEX. 



/ 



Etymology in its primitive acceptation 
means the tracing of a word from its 
original. The part of grammar which 
treats of the inflections of the decli- 
nable parts of speech, p. 12. 

Etymon, the primitive word. 

Euphemism, a figure whereby a harsh or 
indelicate word is changed into one 
that is inoffensive. 

Euphony, agreeable sound. 

Existence, remarks on, p. 114. 

Exordium, the commencement of a dis- 
course, by which the orator prepares 
the minds of his auditors for that 
which is to follow. 

Expletive, filling up. 

" Expletives are all those words 
which pass for empty sounds, and are 
of no other use than to fill a verse, 
or to modulate a period." 

Expletives are distinguishable from 
emphatic words, for the expressions 
" I do write," " he does work," 
"they did run," are objectionable 
only when the simple forms '• I write," 
" he works," " they ran," would be 
sufficient ; but when these simple pro- 
positions are questioned, then the 
auxiliaries may be properly employed, 
since they give force to a declara- 
tion, and affirm that which before was 
only asserted. 

Nearly allied to this kind of words 
are those terms which seem intended 
to express an idea, but are not under- 
stood even by those who invent them, 
such as the absolute case of a noun. 



F. 

F has, in English, an invariable sound, 
produced by applying the middle of 
the under lip to the teeth. 

Fable, a story devised for the sake of 
instruction ; also a feigned tale, or 
mere falsehood. 

Facetle, humourous compositions. 

Fallacy, a deceitful argument. 

Feminine, see gender, p. 42. 

Figurative, not literal. 

Figures in rhetoric are words wrested 
from their literal meanings. 

" Figures are the language of 
nature, not an invention of art, and 
however bold, or even apparently ab- 
surd, they originate in the principles 
of our constitutions. In the use of 
them the vulgar are often more cor- 
rect than the learned, the former 
speaking as nature prompts, the latter, 
attempting to forge them by study 
from an affectation of ornament." 

Finite verbs are those to which num- 
ber and person belong. 



Folio, a book of which the pages are 
formed by a sheet of paper once 
doubled. 

Foot, a certain number of syllables 
constituting a distinct part of a verse. 

For, prep. p. 150; conj. p. 175. 

Force of signification, clearness of 
meaning. The force of a word is 
said to depend upon the number of 
ideas of which that word is the sign. 

Frequentative, a grammatical term 
applied to verbs, signifying the fre- 
quent repetition of an action. 

From, prep. p. 155. 

G. 

G has two sounds, one called hard, as in 
gate, give; the other, soft, as in 
gentle. 

Gaelic, a dialect of the Celtic tongue. 

Gallicism, a French idiom, or mode of 
speech peculiar to the French. 

Gender, the distinction of sex, p. 42. 

General terms, comprehending many 
species, or individuals. Words of 
this kind are called by grammarians 
appellative or common nouns. The 
necessity of general terms is shewn by 
Mr. Locke in his Essay, b. iii. ch. 3. 

Genitive, that case of a noun by which 
property or possession is chiefly im- 
plied. The genitive corresponds with 
the possessive case of English gram- 
marians. 

Georgics, rural poems relating to hus- 
bandry. 

Gerund, a Latin verbal noun. It go- 
verns the case of its verb, and in 
respect to signification supplies the 
place of the infinitive mood. It ap- 
pears to partake more of the nature 
of a participle than of the infinitive. 
In English its place is supplied by the 
pi-esent and the past participles of 
verbs preceded by a preposition. 

Gif, conj. p. 167. 

Glossary, a dictionary of obscure or 
obsolete words in any language. 

Gnomonology, a collection of maxims 
and reflections. 

Government, the power one word has 
over another, p. 55. 

Grammar, that science by which the 
correct use of words is ascertained; 
also the art of speaking and writing 
correctly. 

" Grammar is the last thing that 
should be placed in the hands of chil- 
dren, as containing the most abstract 
and metaphysical propositions utterly 
beyond their power of comprehension, 
putting them to unnecessary torture, 
giving them the habit of taking 



INDEX. 22l 



words for things, and exercising their 
memory at the expence of their judg- 
ment." 

The grammar of any language is 
said to be no other than a collection 
of general observations methodically 
digested, and comprising all the modes 
previously and independently esta- 
blished, by which the significations 
and combinations of words in that 
language are ascertained. " A know- 
ledge of grammar," Mr. Cobbett has 
justly observed, " is the foundation of 
all literature, because, without this 
knowledge, opportunities for writing 
and speaking are only occasions for 
men to display their unfitness to 
write and speak." 

Grammarian, one that is skilled in or 
teaches grammar. 

Grandiloquence, high, lofty speaking. 

Grecism, an idiom of the Greek lan- 
guage. 



H. 



H, the letter that notes aspiration, as 
hand, not to be pronounced " and," 
as it too commonly is, but with a dis- 
tinct aspiration before the vowel. 
There are but few words in English in 
which the h is not aspirated by cor- 
rect speakers. 

Harangue, a popular oration. 

Harmony, just proportion of sound. 
Metre is not confined to verse ; there 
is a tune in all good prose. 

Have, auxiliary verb, p. 117. 

Hebraism, a Hebrew idiom. 

Helenism, a Greek idiom. 

Hemistich, half a verse. 

Hermeneutics, the art of finding the 
meaning of an author's words and 
phrases, and explaining it to others. 

Heroic verse in English poetry con- 
sists often feet, 

Heteroclites, such nouns as vary from 
the common forms of declensiou. 

Hexameter, a verse of six feet. 

Hiatus, a difficulty of utterance occa- 
sioned by the meeting of vowels at 
the ending of one word and the be- 
ginning of another. 

Hibernicism, a phrase peculiar to the 
natives of Ireland. 

Hieroglypiiick, an emblem or figure by 
which a word is implied ; used before 
the alphabet was invented. 

" To resort to supernatural causes 
to account for the production of any 
rare or striking event is repugnant to 
the principles of true philosophy. 
And how wonderful soever the art of 
alphabetic writing may appear, there 



can be no necessity for referring its 
introduction to divine inspiration if 
the inventive powers of man be not 
demonstrably unequal to the task. 
Picture-writing is generally believed 
to have been the earliest mode of re- 
cording events, or communicating in- 
formation by permanent signs. This 
was probably succeeded by hierogly- 
phical characters. How these pic- 
tures and hieroglyphical devices would, 
either through negligence, or a desire 
to abbreviate, gradually vary their 
form and lose their resemblance to the 
objects which they represented, may 
be easily conceived. Hence that as- 
sociation which existed between the 
sign and the thing signified being 
found in resemblance would in pro- 
cess of time be entirely dissolved. 
This having taken place, hierogly- 
phical characters would naturally be 
converted into mere verbal denota- 
tion, representative of words and not 
of things." — Crombie. 

Him, the objective case of the pronoun 
he. 

Hyp all age, a figure by which words 
change their cases with each other. 

Hyperbaton, a figure in writing when 
the words are transposed from the 
plain grammatical order. 

Hyperbole, a figure in rhetoric, by 
which any thing is increased or di- 
minished beyond the truth. 

Hypebcritical, critical beyond use. — 
" It is," says Campbell, " by attend- 
ing to such reflections as to a super- 
ficial observer would appear minute 
and hypercritical, that language must 
be improved and eloquence per- 
fected." 

Hyphen, a note of conjunction used to 
connect syllables or compound words, 
as sea- water, p. 19. 

Hysteron-PbotePvON, is the putting 
that first which should be last, as " to 
write and read " instead of " to read 
and write," " he was bred and born " 
for " he was born and bred." 

In this last example it may be 
urged that " bred " does not in gene- 
ral' mean "brought up," but that 
which is anterior to being born, and 
in that case the first construction is 
con-ect. 



I. 



I, the personal pronoun representing 
the speaker ; the subject of the verb 
in the first person singular. 

There are three words in English 
consisting of only one letter, the in- 



222 



INDEX. 



definite article a, the pronoun I, and 
the interjection O ; the last two are 
always represented by capital letters, 
as " O, I have alienated my friend," 
not, o ! i have alienated my friend. 

Iambick, a foot in metre having the 
first syllable short and the other long, 
as sdlus, also a kind of verse so called 
consisfing usually of four feet or of 
six. 

This kind of verse is said to have 
been first invented by Archilochus, a 
Greek poet, and was applied by the 
ancients to invectives. 

Iconism, a true and lively description. 

Idea, the image or representation of 
any thing conceived in the mind. 

" An idea is generally defined a 
representation of a thing in the mind ; 
it is a representation of something 
that we have seen, felt, heard, &c, or 
been conscious of. That notion or 
form of a horse, a tree, or a man, 
which is in the mind, is called the 
idea of a horse, tree, or a man." — 
Watts. 

Idiom, a mode of speaking peculiar to a 
language or dialect. " The idioms of 
every language are in general the 
most valuable part of it, because 
they represent ideas which cannot so 
well be expressed in any other way. 
And the reason of this is, that they 
are either abbreviated methods of ex- 
pressing things of constant recur- 
rence, or have been invented to sup- 
ply the general defects of language. 
To decide on the propriety of every 
phrase, from a principle of abstract 
reasoning, would be to restrict and 
mutilate the language, and render it 
unfit for the real purposes of life." — 
Haslett. 

How far a vague and inaccurate 
phraseology may injure the mind and 
retard its improvement, must be left 
to others to determine, but the incon- 
venience of being compelled to adopt 
any form of expression that is con- 
trary to the principles of grammar, is 
too often felt by those who have to 
express their thoughts in writing. 

Idiotism, a form of speech used by the 
vulgar ; it also means folly, natural 
imbecility of mind. This word does 
not appear to be derived from idiom, 
nor to have the same signification. 

Idyl, a short pastoral poem. 

If, a conj. p. 167. 

Illation, inference; conclusion drawn 
from premises, hence some conjunc- 
tions have been denominated illative 
conjunctions, as therefore, wherefore, 
then. 



Illegible, what cannot be read. 

Illiterate, unlearned. 

Illogically, in manner contrary to the 
laws of argument. 

Illustrate, to explain, to clear, to elu- 
cidate. 

Illustration of the use of the Articles, 
p. 38; of the Noun, p. 63 ; Adjective, 
p. 75 ; Pronoun, p. 99 ; Verb, p. 139 ; 
Adverb, p. 149 ; Preposition, p. 164; 
Conjunction, p. 190 ; Interjection, p. 
192. 

Imagination, the power of forming 
ideal pictures ; the power of repre- 
senting things absent to one's self or 
others. 

Lmparasyllabic, not consisting of an 
equal number of syllables. 

Imperative Mood, p. 127. 

Imperfect, that tense of the verb which 
denotes past existence. 

Impersonals, those verbs are strictly 
called impersonal of which only the 
third person singular is found, and 
which do not admit a personal sub- 
ject, (/, thou, he,) but a preposition, 
or a neuter noun understood. 

Impromptu, a short extemporaneous 
composition. 

Improve, derivation of, p. 197. 

In, prep. p. 152. 

Indeclinable word, not varied by 
change of termination. 

Indefinite, not limited, not deter- 
mined. 

Index, the table of contents to a book ; 
also a mark of reference. 

Indicative, a mood in grammar ex- 
pressing affirmation, p. 128. 

Individuality, separate existence. 

Infinitive mood, p. .125. 

Inflection is the name given to those 
changes of termination which words 
undergo to express their various rela- 
tions. Thus s in boys, er in harder, 
se in whose, ed in killed, are inflections 
of boy, hard, who, and kill. 

Inflections, though now so incorpo- 
rated with words as not to be used 
apart from them, were originally sepa- 
rate words significant of the circum- 
stances intended. 

The parts of speech which admit 
of inflection are the noun, the adjec- 
tive, the pronoun, and the verb. 

Mr. Cobbett, in his grammar, p. 
1 6, has made no distinction between 
inflection and derivation. The reader 
is told that " walks, walked, and walk- 
ing, are derivatives of walk." These 
words are merely inflections of the 
verb " to walk; " but walker is a deri- 
vative, a distinct part of speech de- 
rived from the verb to walk. 



INDEX. 



223 



Initials, letters at the beginning of 
words or of names. 

Interjection, p. 191. 

It is a melancholy reflection that 
mankind announce their entrance in- 
to life by an interjection expressive of 
grief, and it not unfrequently happens 
that their last respiration is spent in 
giving utterance to an exclamation 
denoting pain and suffering. Thus 
interjections may be considered the 
.41pha and Omega of human speech. 

Interrogative, a pronoun used in ask- 
ing questions, as, who ? what? which? 

Intransitive, a verb which signifies an 
action not conceived, as having an 
effect upon any object, as to run. 

Irony, a figure of speech in which the 
meaning is contrary to the words. 

Irregular verbs, are those that do not 
form the past tense and the past par- 
ticiple by the addition of d or ed. 

Irregularity of the verb to be, p. 1 13. 

J. 

J, a consonant, it has invariably the 
same sound as g in giant. 

Jabberer, one who talks unintelligibly. 

Jaculatory, uttering in short sen- 
tences. 

Jargon, unintelligible talk. 

Journal, a diary ; any paper published 
daily. 

Judgment, the power of discerning the 
relations between one term or propo- 
sition and another. 

Juxta-position, the act of placing toge- 
ther ; opposition. 



K. 



K, a letter borrowed from the Greek, 
has before all the vowels one unvaried 
sound, as kail, keep, kin. 

Kicksywicksey, a word used in ridicule 
and disdain of a wife. 

In the absence of technical words 
beginning with this letter, we have 
given one of those terms that origi- 
nate in caprice and are retained in the 
language perhaps from a sxipposed fit- 
ness to the object represented. 

It must be confessed that there is 
something in the very sound of the 
words " kicksy wicksey " that would 
deter most men from applying it to an 
irritable wife, but words of this class 
can scarcely be considered a part of 
the English language, and might with 
great propriety have a place assigned 
to them in modern dictionaries, or be 
discountenanced as vulgarisms by 
omitting them altogether. 



Kinds of Verbs, p. 132. 

Knowledge, certain perception ; skill 
in any thing. 

" There is far more satisfaction in a 
little sound knowledge than in a great 
quantity of superficial. The distinc- 
tion between information and know- 
ledge is, that the first is only a mass 
of facts unexamined, the second, a 
system of truths understood. Now 
any one who possesses memory may 
possess information, but none can pos- 
sess knowledge who do not possess 
mind." 



L. 



L, a consonant classed among the semi- 
vowels ; it is also called a liquid, from 
readily uniting with other consonants. 

Labdacism is when the letter I is pro- 
nounced with too much force. 

Labial, uttered by the lips, as b, m, p. 

Labiodental, sounds formed by the 
co-operation of the lips and teeth, as 
fyV. 

Laconism, a concise style, a short pithy 
expression after the manner of the 
Lacedemonians. 

Lady, derivation of, p. 197. 

Language, human speech. " Language 
in general signifies the expression of 
our ideas by certain articulate sounds 
which are used as the signs of those 
ideas. By articulate sounds, are 
meant those modulations of simple 
voice, or of sound, emitted from the 
thorax, which are formed by means of 
the mouth and its several organs, the 
teeth, the tongue, the lips, and the 
palate." 

" The connection between words 
and ideas may in general be consi- 
dered as arbitrary and conventional, 
owing to the agreement of men among 
themselves, the clear proof of which is, 
that different nations have different 
languages, or a different set of articu- 
late sounds, which they have chosen 
for communicating their ideas." 

That the voice is the natural means 
for communicating ideas, is evident 
from the general practice of every 
nation, though some writers seem to 
imply that mankind at first agreed to 
make use of articulate sounds because 
they appeared to be the readiest means 
to express the thoughts and senti- 
ments of the mind of man ; but it 
would be just as rational to suppose 
that men agreed to make use of their 
legs in walking, because they dis- 
covered them to be the most expe- 
ditious means in a state of nature to 



224 



INDEX. 



escape from danger, or to seek for 
their subsistence. 

It is unquestionable that language 
had its origin from our first parent. 
Oral speech was suggested to Adam 
by God himself, but it does not ap- 
pear that any thing further was requi- 
site towards the establishment of 
human speech than the naming of the 
objects of creation by Adam, as re- 
corded in the ii. ch. Gen. v. 19. 

Latinism, a Latin idiom. 

Lay, a verb active, p. 133. 

Learn, to receive instruction. To 
teach is to impart knowledge. The 
verb to learn is often improperly used 
instead of the verb to teach. " In 
the first and best prayer children are 
taught," says a writer in the Spectator, 
" they are learnt to misuse the rela- 
tive pronoun." It should be, they 
are taught, or, they learn to mis- 
use. 

Lecture, a discourse pronounced upon 
any subject. 

Lest, conj. p. 169. 

Let, p. 122. 

Letters, characters representing the 
elementary sounds of a language. 

Lexicographer, a writer of dictionaries. 

Lexicon, a dictionary. 

Lie, a verb neuter, p. 133. 

Linguist, one skilful in languages. 

It is reported that the Empei*or 
Charles V. held the acquirement 
of languages in so high estimation, 
that when speaking of the beauties of 
different tongues, he was accustomed 
to declare (according to the opinion 
of the Turks) that the more languages 
a man knows, so much the more is he 
a man. 

Liquid. Those letters that flow rea- 
dily with other consonants, I, m, n, r, 
are, from this property, called by 
grammarians, liquids. 

Literal, according to the primitive 
meaning, not figurative. 

Literate, learned. 

Literati, the learned. 

Literature, learning. 

Lithography, the art of engraving upon 
stone. 

Logic, the art of using reason well in 
our inquiries after touth, and in the 
communication of it to others. Logic 
is (like rhetoric) an art, not a science. 
1 1 relates to something which is to be 
done, not to any thing which is merely 
to be known, — to practice, not to 
theory. 

Logomachy, a contention about words. 

Loquacity, too much talk. 

Love, verb active, remarks on, p. 123. 



Lucubration, any writing or work per- 
formed by candlelight. 

Lyric, an ode or song adapted to the 
harp. 



M. 



M, one of the liquid consonants, it has 

one unvaried sound. 
Macrology, long talk without matter. 
Magniloquence, a lofty manner of 



Major, the first proposition of a 
syllogism containing some generality. 

Masculine, the gender of nouns de- 
noting animals of the male kind. 

May, auxiliary verb, preterite might. 

Means, plural of mean, p. 49. 

Member, as applied to a sentence, is 
synonymous with clause. 

Memoir, an account of transactions fa- 
miliarly written. 

Memorandum, a note of something to 
be remembered. The plural may be 
formed regularly by adding s. 

Met agrammatism, a dissolution of a 
name into its letters as its elements, 
and a new connection of it by artificial 
transposition, making some perfect 
sense applicable to the person named. 

Metalepsis, a continuation of a trope 
in one word through a succession of 
significations. 

Metaphor, a simile comprised in a word, 
as, I am the vine, ye are the branches. 
It is a figure founded entirely on the 
resemblance which one object bears to 
another. Though the metaphor be 
chosen on account of similitude, yet it 
is not properly a comparison or simile. 
A simile introduces a comparison or 
likeness, but the metaphor stands for 
the thing itself. When we say, The 
man acted like a lion, we speak com- 
paratively, but when we say, The 
man is a lion, we speak metaphori- 
cally. 

Metaphorical, not literal, figurative. 

Metaphrase, a mere verbal transla- 
tion from one language to another. 

Metaphysics, are said to comprise " the 
doctrine of the general affections of 
substances existing; " this definition is 
about as intelligible as are the theories 
of those who under, take to explain 
the principles which the subjects of 
metaphysics embrace. 

Metaplasm, a figure in rhetoric 
wherein words or letters are composed 
contrary to their natural order. 

Metastasis, a translation. 

Metathesis, a transposition. 

Method, that part of logic which 
treats of the disposition of thoughts 



INDEX, 



225 



on any subject in such order as may 
best serve to find out unknown truths ; 
to explain and confirm truths that are 
known, and to fix them in the me- 
mory. 

Metonymy, a rhetorical figure by which 
one word is put for another, as, the 
cause for the effect, the author for his 
works, the subject for the adjunct, 
the thing containing for the thing con- 
tained, and the contrary, as — I read 
Cicero. 

Mis, used in composition, denoting 
wrong or error, as misapply, to apply 
to a wrong purpose ; mispel, to spell 
incorrectly. 

Monophthong, a simple vowel sound. 

Monoptote, a noun used only in some 
oblique case. 

Monostrophic, written in unvaried 
measure, free from the restraint of 
any particular metre. 

Monosyllable, a word of only one 
syllable. The English language 
abounds in monosyllables, more par- 
ticularly that portion of it which is 
derived from the Saxons. 

" Monosyllables, properly speaking, 
have no accent ; when they are com- 
bined with other monosyllables and 
form a phrase, the stress which is laid 
upon one in preference to others is 
called emphasis." 

Monotone, want of proper cadence in 
pronunciation. 

Monotony, uniformity of sound. 

Moods, p. 125. 

Move, regular verb, p. 124. 

Must, an auxiliary verb, p. 123. 

Mutes. Letters are called mutes when 
the sounds which they represent can- 
not be uttered without the aid of a 
vowel, as, b, d, k. 

N. 

N, has in English an invariable sound, 
as in no, in, manner ; it is sometimes 
silent after m, as in contemn. 

Name. A name in grammar is either 
proper, as the name of an individual, 
or common, denoting a species, and 
applicable to any of the species. 

Proper Names, being used expressly 
to distinguish individuals of a class or 
genus from each other, might seem to 
admit of no plural, yet sometimes in- 
dividuals have plurality or number 
from the causes following. In the 
first place, the individuals of the hu- 
man race are so large a multitude, 
even in the smallest nation, that it 
would be difficult to invent a new 
name for every new born individual. 
Hence, then, instead of one only being 



called Marcus, and one only Anto- 
nius, it happens that many are called 
Marcus, and many called Antonius, 
and thus it is, the Romans had their 
plurals Marcii and Antonii, as we, in 
in later days, have our Marks and 
Anthonies. Now the plural of this 
sort may well be called accidental, be- 
cause it is merely by chance that the 
names coincide. 

There seems more reason for such 
plurals as the Howards, the Pelhams, 
and the Montagues, because a race or 
family is like a smaller sort of species, 
so that the family name extends to 
the kindred, as the specific name ex- 
tends to the individuals. 

A third cause which contributed to 
make proper names become plural, 
was the high character or eminence of 
some one individual, whose name be- 
came afterwards a kind of common 
appellative to denote all those who 
had pretensions to merit in the same 
way. Thus, every great critic was 
called an Aristarchus— every great 
warrior an Alexander — every great 
beauty a Helen. — Harris. 

Nasal, belonging to the nose. Those 
elementary sounds are called nasal 
that require the nose in uttering 
them, as ng in singing. 

Neither, conj. p. 174. 

Negative. Two negatives in English 
are equivalent to an affirmative, as, 
" We not infrequently hear." 

Neuter means neither. Names of in- 
animate substances and objects in 
which the distinction of sex is want- 
ing are said to be of the neuter gen- 
der. Modern grammarians question 
the propriety of this term, yet it 
would be difficult perhaps to find a 
more appropriate word to denote the 
absence of sex in a noun. 

Nomenclature, a vocabulary, a dic- 
tionary. 

Nominative. The first case of nouns ; 
that which is the subject of a sen- 
tence. The nominative case requires 
the verb to be in the same number 
and person, as, " I the Lord thy God 
am a jealous God," the verb agrees 
with the pronoun, and not with the 
nouns in apposition with it. The 
pronoun represents the speaker as the 
subject of the affirmation, and is 
therefore shewn by the verb to be 
the true nominative of the sentence ; 
the nouns are little else than defini- 
tives to the pronoun. 

Nor, conj. p. 172. 

Noun. In grammar the name of any 
thing, p. 40. 



226 



INDEX. 



" Nouns are the names of the ideas 
of things, first as they are received by 
the stimulus of objects, or as they are 
afterwards repeated; secondly, they 
are names of more abstracted ideas 
which do not suggest at the same time 
the external objects by which they 
were originally excited; or, thirdly, 
of the operations of our minds, which 
are termed reflex ideas by metaphysi- 
cal writers ; or, lastly, they are names 
of our ideas of parts or properties of 
objects, and are termed by gramma- 
rians nouns adjective." — Darwin. 

Number, in grammar, is applicable to 
nouns and verbs, p. 47. 

Numeral Adjectives are those which 
express number, as, one, two, &c, 
first, second, third, &c. 

O. 

O has two sounds, a long sound, as in 
stone, and a short one, as heard in not. 

Obelisk, (t) a marginal note of refer- 
ence. 

Objective case in English grammar is 
applicable to those nouns in a sen- 
tence that are either governed by a 
verb or by a preposition. 

Oblique, aterm sometimes applied to any 
case of a noun, except to the nomina- 
tive, which is called the upright case. 

Observanda, things to be observed. 

Obsolete, disused; applied to any word 
or form of expression that is not 
within the limits of present use, as 
enow, formerly used to express enough 
in number. 

In determining what may be con- 
sidered present usage, Dr. Campbell 
remarks that " regard must be had to 
the species of composition and the na- 
ture of the subject. Poetry is pro- 
perly allowed a greater latitude than 
prose, therefore a word which in prose 
we should reject as a barbarism, may 
with strict propriety be admitted in 
verse. Here, also, there are limits 
that must not be passed, and perhaps 
any word which cannot plead the 
authority of Milton, or of any con- 
temporary, or later poet, may be 
j ustly regarded as obsolete. In prose, 
no word, unless the subject be art or 
science, should be employed which 
has been disused for a period greater 
than the age of man. " 

Of, prep. p. 158. 

Off, prep. p. 156. 

On, prep. p. 156. 

Onomatopoeia, a term more remark- 
able for the difficulty of its pronun- 
ciation than for the propriety of its 



signification. It is formed from the 
two Greek words bvofia name and 
iroiiu) I make or feign, but the Ety- 
mons do not convey a notion of the 
essential characteristic by which the 
mind might be enabled to retain the 
meaning of the word. Onomatopoeia, 
in grammar or rhetoric, is a figure of 
speech whereby names and words are 
formed to the resemblance of the 
sound made to the things signified, 
" The surest etymologies " says Mr. 
Walker, " are those derived from the 
Onomatopoeia." 

Optative is that mood of a verb which 
expresses an earnest desire that such 
a thing may be or happen. 

Or, conj. p. 173. 

Orator, a public speaker. 

Oratory, declamation. The art of 
making public speeches. 

Ordinal numbers are such as express the 
order of things, as, first, second, &c. 

Orthoepist, one skilled in pronun- 
ciation. 

Orthoepy, the correct pronunciation of 
words. 

Orthography, p. 7. 

Ought, irr. verb, p. 122. 

Oxymoron, a rhetorical figure in which 
an epithet of a quite contrary signifi- 
cation is added to any word. 

Oxytone, the acute accent placed on 
the last syllable of a word. 

P. 

P is a labial consonant; its sound is 
sometimes omitted before t, as ac- 
compt, receipt. 

Palatal, a letter pronounced by the 
aid of the palate. 

Paleography, the art of explaining 
ancient writings. 

Paleology, a discourse on antiquities. 

Palindromes are those sentences or 
words in which the syllables are the 
same read backward or forward, as 
Lewd did I live— evil I did dwel. 

" A noble lady in the reign of 
Queen Elizabeth, being for a time 
forbidden the court for too much 
familiarity with a great lord in favour, 
gave this device, — the moon covered 
with a cloud, and underneath this 
palindrome for motto — 

" Ablata at Alba." 

Pamphlet, a small unbound book. 

Pantologia, a work of general science. 

Parable, a continued comparison, as, 
Whereunto shall we liken the king- 
dom of God ? or with what compari- 
son shall we compare it ? 



INDEX. 



227 



It is like a grain of mustard seed, 
which when it is sown in the earth is 
less than all the seeds that he in the 
earth ; hut when it is sown it groweth 
up and hecometh greater than all 
herhs, and shooteth out great hranches, 
so that the fowls of the air may lodge 
under the shadow of it. 

And with many such parables 
spake he the word unto them. 

Paradigm, a synopsis, model, or ex- 
ample. 

Paradox, an assertion contrary to ap- 
pearance, as 

" All are not just because they do no wrong." 

Paragoge, a figure wherehy a letter or 
syllable is added to a word without 
altering its signification. 

Paragram, a kind of play upon words. 

Paragraph. 

" Every thing included in separate 
divisions " says a modern writer, " is a 
paragraph." This is certainly a wide 
definition, and the learner would pro- 
bably find some difficulty in compre- 
hending the nature of a paragraph 
from such description. Mr. Cobbett 
is more clear upon this point, and 
with his usual precision, directs the 
reader at once to the subject. Thus, 
he would say, " from ' Every ' to the 
last word of this sentence is a para- 
graph." 

The subdivisions of chapters, sec- 
tions, or treatises, into paragraphs, 
cannot be reduced to the standard of 
any fixed rules, but must be left 
chiefly to the taste and judgment of 
the writer. Mr. Brenan's observa- 
tions on the paragraph are so much 
to the purpose, that we may present 
them to the reader as containing all 
that is essential to be known respect- 
ing the limits and use of these divi- 
sions. 

" Paragraphs should never be ex- 
tended to a great length. If very 
long they will run the risk of not be- 
ing read attentively. They make us 
impatient to go to the next, and if 
there be a succession of such pro- 
tracted stages, we get tired and begin 
to think of repose. The eye must be 
pleased as well as the mind. The end 
of every paragraph is a certain relief 
to thought or attention— the com- 
mencement of the next is a new pros- 
pect for the sight, and if each be not 
somewhat gratified, desire will abate, 
and we shall feel inclined to halt on 
our journey. But it is not easy to 
fix a standard for the size of para- 
graphs. They must be diversified 



into long and short, for a monotonous 
sameness is displeasing here, as well 
as in other matters. Were I to give 
any thing like a general direction, I 
would say, that they should seldom 
contain less than sixty words, and not 
exceed five hundred. In newspapers, 
they often run to extraordinary length, 
but where columns are above a foot 
and a half long, and space an object, 
we cannot expect attention to such 
matters. 

" Some authors are fond of the 
shortest paragraphs possible, and will 
continue them all through with only 
from thirty to fifty words in each. Such 
writing assumes too aphoristical an 
appearance ; it is like a list of maxims 
or apophthegms. Finding a difficulty 
of connection, we read carelessly, and 
seeing no necessity for this starched 
furmality, we are offended by such an 
uncalled for dictatorial pomposity. 
There is an appearance of too much 
self confidence and opinion, as if the 
author thought that every line should 
be got by heart, but he only forces us 
to recollect that every writer is not a 
Bacon." 

The commencement of a para- 
graph may be known by the first line 
being indented, as at the beginning of 
this sentence. 
Paralepsis, a figure in rhetoric by 
which a speaker pretends to pass by 
what at the same time he really men- 
tions. 
Paralogy, a fallacious way of arguing ; 

false reasoning. 
Pareph, any mark or flourish added at 
the termination of a person's signa- 
ture. 
Paraphrase, an explanation of the 
writings of another, by the use of 
many words, and a style better adap- 
ted to the capacity of the general 
reader. 
Parathesis, a figure in grammar where 
two or more substantives are put in 
the same case, as " She went to the 
country where he was born (France) 
and died there." In rhetoric, a short 
hint, with a promise of future enlarge- 
ment. In printing, the matter con- 
tained within two crotchets, marked 
thus [ ]. 
Parelcon, the addition of a word or 

syllable to the end of another. 
Parembole, the insertion of something 
relating to the subject in the middle 
of a period ; it differs from the paren- 
thesis only in this, — the parembole re- 
lates to the subject, the parenthesis is 
foreign to it. 



228 



NDEX. 



Parenthesis, a sentence so inclosed in 
another sentence as that it may he 
taken out without injuring the sense 
of that which encloses it. 

Mr. Brenan, in his volume on 
Composition, has censured the use of 
the parenthesis, and consigns it to the 
lowest class of writers. There are, 
however, occasions where the use of 
the parenthesis appears almost indis- 
pensable, and an instance may he 
given in the very example condemned 
by Mr. Brenan. 

" I give all I have (except my 
watch) to Alexander." 

It would he difficult, by using any 
other form of words, to express so 
concisely and so clearly the meaning 
contained in this example. 

The chief rules to be observed in 
respect to parenthesis are — to see that 
they are pertinent— that they do not 
obscure the meaning of the principal 
member of the sentence — and to avoid 
their too frequent use. A few ex- 
amples will best shew the abuse of 
this useful auxiliary. Our first is a 
specimen of style which probably as- 
sisted greatly to bring parentheses 
into disrepute, the remarks thrown in 
are unconnected with the subject, and 
may therefore be justly called im- 
pertinent. 

" These three following sermons 
(though conceived elsewhere) were 
first brought forth in your ancient and 
honourable city. The subject matter 
of them is seasonable for these sickly 
times. Though you, in your city, (as 
I am informed by those who have 
best reason to know) have been this 
last year as healthful as at other times 
(a mercy which you can never be too 
thankful for), yet the towns and vil- 
lages about you, yea the most part of 
the nation (I hope you are sensible of 
it) have been sorely visited with sick- 
ness." 

The use of commas instead of the 
marks denoting parentheses does not 
always serve the purpose. The fol- 
lowing (even with the assistance of the 
signs) is rather a startling assertion. 

" The sum of .£200 has been or- 
dered for Lucy Cully (the widow of 
the unfortunate police constable who 
was murdered at Coldbath-fields) by 
the Commissioners of .his Majesty's 
Treasury." 

The sentence would have been less 

ambiguous if the writer had put the 

last member into a parenthesis thus — 

The sum of ,£200 has been ordered 

(by the Commissioners of his Ma- 



jesty's Treasury) for Lucy Cully, the 
widow of the unfortunate police con- 
stable, who was murdered at Cold- 
bath-fields. 

The parenthesis, whether short or 
extended, marked or understood, is 
plainly a digression in a sentence, and 
it should always, unless very concise, 
be transferred to the next, or be so 
placed as to read smoothly, and to 
glide at once into our conception. 
Parody, a writing in which the words 
of an author are taken and by a slight 
change adapted to some new sense. 

This kind of composition is con- 
fined to scribblers of the lowest de- 
scription, who, having neither wit nor 
invention of their own, resort to this 
contemptible means of exhibiting their 
mimic powers. 

Some pieces of composition seem to 
be in a peculiar manner open to the 
attacks of these writers — the soliloquy 
of Cato, for example, offers an easy 
means for the development of this 
talent, and has been the constant 
theme on which witlings have exer- 
cised their ingenuity. It is much to 
be regretted that such miserable at- 
tempts at authorship should ever find 
a place in respectable publications. 
Paronomasia, a rhetorical figure, in 
which, by the change of a letter or 
syllable several things are alluded to. 
It is properly that figure which the 
French cnWjeu de mots, as — they are 
fiends not friends. 
Parse, to resolve a sentence into its 

parts of speech. 
Participle, a word partaking at once 
the nature of an adjective and a verb. 
When a verbal attribute is sepa- 
rated from the verb or sign of affirma- 
tion, but at the same time is affirmed 
to belong to some noun, it is called a 
participle. Thus, the words " sepa- 
rated," " affirmed," " called," are par- 
ticiples. They are said to be so 
named because they participate in the 
nature of an adjective, and may in 
many cases be used before a noun to 
denote its quality. 

The present participle ends in ing, 
and the past participle of a regular 
verb, in d or ed. 
Particle, a term formerly applied to 

the indeclinable parts of speech. 
Partitive, distributive. 
Parts of speech, p. 12. 

It is said there are ninety thousand 
different words in the English lan- 
guage, yet these may all be arranged 
under the nine parts of speech. 
Passive Verb, p. 133. 



INDEX. 



229 



Pauses. A pause or rest in speaking 
is a total cessation of the voice during 
a perceptible, and, in many cases, a 
measurable, space of time. 

The characters used in writing to 
denote the several pauses, are the 
comma , the semicolon ; the colon : 
the period or full stop . the note of 
interrogation ? and the note of ad- 
miration ! and to these may be added 
the dash — 

Pedantry, a needless ostentation of 
learning. 

Pentameter, a Latin verse consisting 
of five feet. 

Penult, the last syllable of a word but 
one. 

Periphrasis, use of many words to ex- 
press the sense of one. 

Peroration, the conclusion of an ora- 
tion. 

Person, derivation of, p. 202. 

Personification is that figure by which 
we attribute life and action to inani- 
mate objects. The technical term is 
Prosopopoeia, but as personification is 
of the same import and more allied to 
our own language, the use of this word 
is to be preferred. 

The abuse of this figure has been 
already noticed under the gender of 
nouns. Another example or two 
may, however, be here quoted. The 
following vigorous description of the 
progress of science is from a modern 
writer. 

" An immense impulse was now 
given to Science, and it seemed as if 
the Genius of Mankind, being long 
pent up, had at length rushed eagerly 
upon Nature, and commenced with 
one accord the great work of turning 
up her hitherto unbroken soil, and 
exposing the treasures so long con- 
cealed." 

It may be said of this specimen of 
figurative language what Dr. John- 
son said of one of Prior's Poems, " It 
is not over decent." 

" Use " says Dr. Campbell, " is the 
sole mistress of language — Grammar 
and Criticism are her ministers, but 
though servants, they sometimes, like 
other ministers, impose the dic- 
tates of their own humour upon the 
people as the commands of their 
sovereign." 

The Goddess, Use, is by this au- 
thor first styled the mistress of Lan- 
guage ; in the next sentence she rises 
to the dignity of sovereign ; and the 
goddesses Grammar and Criticism are 
her ministers, next these ministers are 
the servants of their mistress, then 



these servants, like other ministers, 
execute the commands of their sove- 
reign. 

The accuracy of this language may 
indeed be justified, since ministers are 
the servants of their sovereign, but 
is the use of such language in a work 
on science to be sanctioned or ap- 
proved ? In a treatise on Rhetoric, 
in particular, these exhibitions of the 
art should be carefully avoided. An 
author who professes to instruct can- 
not be too simple in his style, nor in 
the choice of his expressions. 
Perspecuity, clearness of expression. 

" Perspecuity is a quality so essen- 
tial in every kind of writing, that for the 
want of it nothing can atone. Without 
this the richest ornaments merely glim- 
mer, and, instead of pleasing, tend only 
to puzzle the reader." 

Some critics have doubted whether 
there may not be an excess of perspe- 
cuity. This singular notion has been 
traced by Dr, Campbell to a want of 
discrimination in those who enter- 
tained it. 

" The objection ariseth manifestly 
from the confounding of two objects, 
the common and the clear, and thence 
very naturally their contraries, the 
new and the dark, that are widely dif- 
ferent." 

" If you entertain your reader 
solely or chiefly with thoughts that 
are either trite or obvious, you can- 
not fail soon to tire him. All trifling 
minuteness in narration, description, 
or instruction, which an ordinary ap- 
prehension would render superfluous, 
is apt to disgust us." 

Perspecuity may with truth be said 
to be the test of grammatical accuracy. 
Philtppick, any invective declamation. 
The following is said to have been 
uttered by Dr. Parr against Sir James 
Mackintosh : " Mackintosh, as the 
story goes, had described O'Connor 
as the worst of men, which Parr de- 
nied, saying, No, Sir — He was an 
Irishman, he might have been a 
Scotsman — he was a priest, he might 
have been a lawyer — he was a rebel, 
he might have been a renegado." 
Philology, criticism, grammatical 

learning. 
Phrase, an expression. A phrase dif- 
fers from a sentence in that it has no 
finite verb. 

" To fear the Lord," and " depart 
from evil," are phrases which scrip- 
ture useth to express the sum of 
religion. 

Sentences consist chiefly of esta- 



230 



INDEX. 



Wished phrases, which, like current 
coin, have received the stamp of au- 
thority, and have thus become the 
legal tender for the communication of 
ideas. The superiority of a language 
depends chiefly on the purity and per- 
specuity of its established phrases. 

Phraseology, style, diction. 

Pleonasm, a figure by which more 
words are used than are necessary. 
Pleonasm is opposed to precision, and 
may truly be considered a defect, and 
not an ornament in composition. 

Ex. " Viewing these sacred books 
in no higher light than as they pre- 
sent to us the most ancient monu- 
ments of poetry extant at this day in 
the world, they afford a curious ob- 
ject of criticism." 

" Extant " means now in being, 
therefore the phrases " at this time " 
" in the world " are redundant. 

Plural, implying more than one. 

Poem, a metrical composition. 

Poesy, a short device engraved on aring. 

Poetry, metrical composition. 

Polyglot, embracing many languages. 

Polysyllable, a word of many sylla- 
bles, as, Honourificabilitudinity, An- 
thropomorphitamanismicaliation. 

Polysyndeton, a figure of rhetoric by 
which the copulative is often re- 
peated, as, " The man who is doing 
well, who is in good health, who has a 
blooming and dutiful and cheerful and 
happy family about him, is not to be 
made to believe that he was born to 
be miserable." 

Positive, applied to the adjective in its 
simple form, the first degree of com- 
parison, p. 69. 

Possessive case. Much difficulty is 
often felt by inexperienced writers in 
determining when and where it is pro- 
per to use the sign of the possessive 
case. For example, " This is my 
brother's letter." " These are my 
sisters' companions." In the first 
instance some writers doubt whether 
the apostrophe ought to be inserted 
or not. In the last, they hesitate 
about adding another s, and if they 
happen to know that the second s is 
inadmissible, they still doubt the pro- 
priety of leaving the apostrophe in its 
proper place. To obviate the first 
difficulty, it is necessary that they be 
able to distinguish the different parts 
of speech. The general rule will 
then determine when a noun is in 
the possessive case. " Two nouns 
coming together signifying different 
things, the former is put in the pos- 
sessive case, as, brother's letter. 



The latter difficulty is overcome by 
recollecting that a noun plural ending 
in s in the possessive, requires only 
the sign of the possessive case, as — my 
sisters' companions. The s is also 
omitted in the singular of nouns end- 
ing in ss, as, for righteousness' sake. 

Posthumous writings are those pub- 
lished after the author's death. 

Postscript, the paragraph at the end of 
a letter. 

Postulate, a position assumed without 
proof. 

Potential, a mood expressing the 
power of doing any thing, p. 129. 

Power of a letter, is the capability of 
utterance which the sound it repre- 
sents posseses, thus a vowel has more 
power than a consonant, liquids have 
more power than other semivowels, 
and the semivowels have greater power 
than the mutes. 

Precision, conciseness of expression; 
exact limitation. 

" The exact import of precision 
may be drawn from the etymology of 
the word. It comes from prcecidere, 
to cut off. It imports retrenching all 
superfluities, and pruning the expres- 
sion so as to exhibit neither more nor 
less than an exact copy of his idea 
who uses it. In order to write or 
speak with precision, two things are 
especially requisite, one, that an 
author's own ideas be clear and dis- 
tinct, and the other, that he have an 
exact and full comprehension of the 
force of those words which he em- 
ploys." 

" The use and importance of pre- 
cision may be deduced from the nature 
of the human mind. It never can 
view clearly and distinctly above one 
object at a time. If it must look at 
two or three together, especially ob- 
jects among which there is resem- 
blance or connection, it finds itself 
confused and embarrassed. It cannot 
clearly perceive in what they agree or 
in what they differ. If, when you 
would inform me of your meaning, 
you also tell me more than what con- 
veys it; if you join foreign circum- 
stances to the principal object ; if by 
unnecessarily varying the expi'ession 
you shift the point of view and make 
me see sometimes the object itself and 
sometimes another thing that is con- 
nected with it — you thereby oblige me 
to look on several objects at once, 
and I lose sight of the principal." — 
Blair. 

Predicate, that which is affirmed or 
denied by the subject, p. 109. 



INDEX. 



231 



Preface, introduction to a book. 

Prefix, a particle put before a word to 
vary or alter its signification. 

Prenomen, among the Romans, a name 
prefixed to the family name, answer- 
ing to our christian name, as Caius, 
Lucius, Marcus. 

Prepositions. Etymology of, p. 1 50 ; 
Syntax of, p. 162. Plutarch conjec- 
tured that prepositions were little 
fragments of words used in haste and 
for dispatch instead of the whole 
words. 

Present tense, denoting the actual 
existence of an attribute affirmed of 
some subject. 

Preterimperfect, applied to the past 
tense of a verb. 

Preterite, the past tense of a verb. 

Preterperfect, applied to the tense 
which denotes that the existence of 
the attribute is absolutely past. 

PrEterpluperfect, past before the 
existence of some other attribute which 
is also spoken of as past. 

Primer, an elementary book in which 
children are taught to read. 

Primitive. A primitive word is that 
which can be traced no further to any 
English root ; thus, circumspect, cir- 
cumstance, delude, concave, and com- 
plicate, though compounds in Latin, 
are primitives in English. 

A derivative word is one that may 
be referred to a word in English of 
greater simplicity, as — authority, au- 
thorize ; usage, useful, usefulness. 

Proem, preface, introduction. 

Prolegomena, introductory observa- 
tions. 

Prolepsis, a figure in grammar whereby 
we prevent or avoid what another 
intended to allege against us. 

Prolixity, tediousness 

Prologue, that which is spoken by an 
actor before the commencement of a 
play. 

Pronoun, Etymology of, p. 77 ; Syntax 
of, p. 86. 

That ambiguity or doubt would 
often arise if the noun were used in- 
stead of the pronoun may be seen in 
the following passage from Shakes- 
peare : — 

Pros. 'Tis twelve years since, Miranda, 
twelve years since 
Thy father was the Duke of Milan, 

and 
A prince of power. 
Miran. Sir, are you not my father? 
Pros. Thy mother was a piece of virtue and 
She said thou wast my daughter. 

It is probable that the writer in 
this instance purposely employed the 



noun, that by provoking inquiry he 
might introduce with greater effect 
the compliment he pays to the charac- 
ter of Miranda's mother. 

Pronunciation, the act of utterance. 
For pronunciation, the best general 
rule is to consider those as the most 
elegant speakers who deviate least 
from written words. It was observed 
by Dr. Darwin, " that gl is dl, as 
glove is pronounced by polite people 
dlove, and that cl is tl, as Cloe is 
pronounced Tloe by polite speakers." 
Immediately after this he remarks 
that " The spelling of our language 
in respect of pronunciation is won- 
derfully defective." It would be 
wonderful indeed if it were not de- 
fective, when our best writers thus 
countenance the lisping peculiarities 
of the polite and effeminate. 

Proposition, a sentence in which any 
thing is affirmed, p. 109. 

Prosody, the part of grammar which 
teaches the sound and quantity of 
syllables, and the measure of verse. 

Prosopopoeia, personification, a figure 
by which things are made persons. 

Protasis, a maxim. In the ancient 
drama the first part of a comedy or 
tragedy that explains the argument of 
the piece. 

Proverb, an adage, a bye word. 

Provincialism, manner of speaking pe- 
culiar to a certain district of a country. 

Puerile. Among the number of styles 
of writing there is one which may be 
denominated the puerile. The reader 
is presented with the following ex- 
tract as a specimen of this style, taken 
from the notes of a commentator on 
the Greek authors. 

" The impression was probably 
written in their eyes, the windows of 
the soul, windows of all kinds being 
notorious, tell tales of the loves of 
the inner soul, particularly when the 
impression is made with a brilliant of 
the first water." 

Pun, an equivocation, a quibble. Words 
that agree in the sound, but differ in 
the sense. 

Punster, a quibbler. 

Punctuation is the art of marking in 
writing the several pauses or rests be- 
tween sentences according to their 
proper quantity or proportion, as they 
are expressed in a just and accurate 
pronunciation. 

Purity is the use of such words and 
such constructions as belong to the 
idiom of the language which we speak 
in opposition to words and phrases that 
are imported from other languages, or 



232 



INDEX. 



that are obsolete or new coined, or 
used without proper authority. 
Pyrrhic, in poetry a foot consisting of 
two short syllables. 

Q. 

Q is always followed by u, as, quick, ques- 
tion, quote; it is sometimes sounded 
like k, quoit, conquer, pique, quay. 

Quadrisyllable, a word of four sylla- 
bles, as, con-tempt-i-ble. Words of 
more than three syllables are gene- 
rally called polysyllables. 

QiLasRE, a Latin word meaning inquire 
or seek. This word is seldom pro- 
perly employed by English speakers. 

Quality, a term sometimes employed 
by grammarians instead of adjective, to 
denote the properties or accidents of 
a noun. 

Quantity, the measure of time in pro- 
nouncing a syllable. 

A vowel or syllable is long when 
the accent is on the vowel, which oc- 
casions it to be slowly joined in pro- 
nunciation with the following letters, 
as, fate, fatal. 

A syllable is short when the accent 
is on the consonant, which occasions 
the vowel to be quickly joined to the 
succeeding letter, as, fat, fatten. 

A long syllable requires double the 
time of a short one in pronouncing it. 

Quarto, a book in which every sheet 
makes four leaves. 

Query, an inquiry, a question. 

Quibble, a low conceit depending on 
the construction of a sentence, or the 
sound of a word. 

Quotation, an extract taken from the 
writings of another — a quotation is 
marked by inverted commas. 

R. 

R, a semivowel, called the canine letter, 
because it is uttered with some slight 
resemblance to the growl or snarl of 
a cur. 

Rapin, on the dialects of the English 
language, p. 194. 

Raillery, inoffensive satire ; jesting. 

Re, in composition means again, as re- 
admit, re-affirm. 

Recitative, a kind of tuneful pronun- 
ciation, more musical than common 
speech, and less so than song. 

Redundancy, superfluous w r ords in a 
sentence. Redundancy differs but 
little from Pleonasm — both imply a 
waste of words. 

Ex. " It has been observed that the 
essence of the verb consists in affirma- 



tion. This theory / have remarked 
is eon tro verted by Mr. Tooke. It 
must be obvious, however, from the 
preceding observations, that the differ- 
ence between the opinion of this emi- 
nent philologist and that which is here 
delivered, is more apparent than 
real." — Crombie. 

The phrases denoted by Italics in 
this example might be omitted, and 
the sentences would contain all 
that the writer had occasion to ex- 
press, thus, 

The essence of the verb consists in 
affirmation. This theory is contro- 
verted by Mr. Tooke, but the differ- 
ence between the opinion of this emi- 
nent philologist and that which is here 
delivered, is more apparent than real. 

Regimen, the cases of a noun governed 
by a verb or participle. 

Regular verbs are such as have the 
past tense and past participle ending 
in d or ed, p. 124. 

Relative, a pronoun referring to an 
antecedent noun which it represents, 
p. 82. 

Remarks on the indefinite article, p. 32 ; 
on the definite article, p. 34. 

Revise, to review, to overlook ; also a 
proof sheet of a book that has been 
previously corrected. 

Rhetoric, the art of speaking well and 
eloquently. 

Rhyme, the correspondence of the last 
sound of one verse to the last sound 
or syllable of another. 

Rhyming Prose, or what by some 
authors is termed jingling, is a defect 
in composition that may be avoided 
either by altering the construction of 
the sentence, or by employing a syno- 
nymous term. 

Ex. Homerwiththe Greek vivacity 
had also some portion of the Greek 
loquacity. — Blair. 

A writer, speaking of Belisarius, 
says, " The popular tale, that he was 
obliged to beg for a penny, has been 
believed by many." The jingling be- 
tween " penny " and " many " might 
have been avoided by saying " has 
been generally believed." 

Rhythm, metre, verse, numbers. 

Riddle, an enigma, a puzzle. 

Right, derivation of; p. 200. 

Rudiments, the elements or first prin- 
ciples of a science. 



S has in English the same hissing sound 
as in other languages. In Dr. John- 
son's Dictionary the reader will find 



INDEX. 



233 



the following comment on the power 
of the letter S. 

" It is the peculiar quality of S 
that it may be sounded before all con- 
sonants, except x and z, in which s is 
comprised, x being only ks, and z a 
hard or gross s ; this is therefore termed 
by grammarians sum potestads litera. 
The reason of which the learned Dr. 
Clarke erroneously supposed to be 
that in some words it might be doubled 
at pleasure." 

The phrase here explained by Dr. 
Johnson forms part of the Eton and 
other grammars for children, but can 
a child be expected to understand what 
the learned Dr. Clarke misunderstood? 
" It should be a point," says a popu- 
lar and elegant writer, " never to 
teach children to speak about what 
they do not understand." We fear 
grammarians pay very little regard to 
the excellent principle this writer in- 
culcates. 

Sarcasm, a taunting observation. 

Satire, a poem in which folly or vice is 
censured. 

Save, conj. p. 177. 

Saxonism, an idiom of the Saxon lan- 
guage. 

Scan, to examine a verse by counting 
the feet. 

Scoliast, a writer of explanatory notes. 

Scholium, a note, an explanatory ob- 
servation. 

Scotticism, an idiom peculiar to the 
Scotch people. 

Semicolon, a stop, or point, marked 
thus ; 

Semivowel, a consonant that can be 
partially sounded without the help of 
a vowel, as,y, /, m, n, r. 

Sentence, any number of words so ar- 
ranged as to express distinctly any 
opinion or sentiment which we wish 
to communicate to the hearer. The 
words so combined are said to make 
complete sense, because the end of 
speech is then answered. 

Sentences are either simple or com- 
pound. 

A simple sentence contains the 
enunciation of but one affirmation, 
and consequently includes but one 
finite verb. 

A compound sentence contains two 
or more affirmations, which are united 
by means of relatives or conjunctions. 
" There is a distinction of con- 
siderable importance to be attended 
to [with respect to compound sen- 
tences, and that is, whether the con- 
nection is merely made arbitrarily for 
convenience, or to save time in speak- 



ing. Where several propositions, in- 
dependent in themselves, are thrown 
by the lump, as it were, into the same 
sentence, as, ' Caesar came, saw, and 
conquered,' or whether the connec- 
tion is necessarily made in order to 
complete the sense, or to explain what 
has gone before, as, ' I will stay at 
home if you will.' Here the latter 
sentence is necessary to explain the 
meaning of the foregoing one, and 
cannot therefore be separated from 
it." — Lewis. 

In prose compositions very little 
variety is admitted in the collocation 
of words ; they are mostly fixed to 
one order, and that order is what may 
be called the order of the understand- 
ing. The person who speaks or 
acts is placed first in the sentence, 
next the action, and lastly the object 
of the action : so that the ideas are 
made to succeed to one another, not 
t according to the degree of importance 
which the several objects carry in the 
imagination, but according to the 
order of nature and of time. 

Protracted sentences often originate 
from the want of a competent know- 
ledge of the principles of language, 
but there is another cause which fre- 
quently produces this fault. Many 
writers begin a compound sentence 
before they have determined upon the 
extent and number of its members, or 
what relation they shall bear to each 
other. They link the thoughts as 
they arise by relatives and conjunc- 
tions, until the principal subject lies 
buried amidst a confused mass of half 
formed propositions. 

Ex. " That the primary causes of 
the long-existing distressed state of 
our agricultural community were war 
prices having caused high rents to be 
both demanded and offered for land, 
and consequently high compositions 
to take place for tithes, the enlarge- 
ment of farms, and the enclosure of 
common lands ; and that the deriva- 
tive causes have been loss of business 
by little farmers, on account of their 
farms having been taken from them 
and thrown iuto great ones ; the en . 
closure of the commons having de- 
prived these and many labourers of a 
common-right for their cow or a few 
sheep, as well as the enlargement of 
of farms throwing many of the latter 
out of, and preventing the former — 
who became labourers by being turned 
out of their little farm — from obtain- 
ing employ ; and the rents being kept 
up partly by the continued rage for 
s 



234 



INDEX. 



becoming farmers of those who have 
bxit little if any knowledge of hus- 
bandry, and partially by farmers being 
unwilling to leave farms, in the soil 
of which they have buried nearly the 
whole of their property in hopes of 
better times ; no one at all acquainted 
with rural affairs will deny i but the 
effects of these causes would have long 
since cured themselves, had not agri- 
culture been kept in a very unsettled 
state by a political hubbub that in- 
duced farmers and their landlords to 
anticipate legislative advantages that 
neither have realized." 

It is reported of Sophocles that he 
expired for want of power to recover 
his breath after a violent endeavour 
to pronounce a long period to the 
end. 

As a contrast to the foregoing ex- 
ample, we shall quote a well con- 
structed long sentence from a classical 
author, but at the same time we may 
be allowed to recommend the young 
and inexperienced writer to be con- 
tent to admire rather than to imitate 
this kind of composition. A long 
sentence seldom pleases the reader, 
and is a hazardous task even from the 
pen of a skilful and practised writer. 

Ex. " To suppose that two or three 
hundred years ago, when we well 
know the Highlands to have been in 
a state of gross ignorance and bar- 
barity, there should have arisen in 
that country a poet of such exquisite 
genius and of such deep knowledge of 
mankind and of history as to divest 
himself of the ideas and manners of 
his own age, and to give us a just and 
natural picture of a state of society 
ancienter by a thousand years ; one 
who could support this counterfeited 
antiquity through such a large col- 
lection of poems without the least in- 
consistency ; and who, possessed of all 
this genius and art, had at the same 
time the self-denial of concealing him- 
self and of ascribing his own works to 
an antiquated bard without the im- 
posture being detected— is — a suppo- 
sition that transcends all bounds of 
credibility. " — Blair. 

In this long sentence the infinitive 
" to suppose " is the nominative to the 
verb " is" at the close of the sentence. 
What comes between the .nominative 
and the verb is merely an enumera- 
tion of those particulars connected 
with supposition. 
Seriatim, in regular succession. 
Shall and Will, remarks on, p. 118. 
Short-hand, an abbreviated method of 



writing, said to have been invented 
and practised almost exclusively by 
the English. 
Sibilant, those letters that produce a 
hissing sound, as the soft c, the s, and 
z. Foreigners complain of the too 
frequent recurrence of these letters in 
English, but a Frenchman, at least, 
ought not to be too fastidious, when 
his own language furnishes an exam- 
ple like this — 

Combien ces six saucisses ici ? 
Six sous ces six saucisses ici, 
Six sous ces six saucisses ici ! ! ! 
C'est trop ces six saucisses ici. 

Simile. The comparison and the simile 
are so much alike that rhetoricians 
have found some difficulty to mark the 
distinction. Dr. Campbell says " the 
difference is this — simile is no more 
than a comparison suggested in a 
word or two, as, He fought like a lion, 
his face shone as the sua — comparison 
is a simile circumstantiated and in- 
cluded in one or more separate sen- 
tences." 

The following has been given as an 
example of a comparison. 

" The actions of princes are like 
those great rivers, the course of which 
every one beholds, but their springs 
have been seen by few." 

" Similies appear with most beauty 
and propriety in works of imagination ; 
they are frequently found most useful 
to the authors of philosophical trea- 
tises, and have often helped them out 
at many a dead lift by giving them an 
appearance of saying something when 
indeed they had nothing to say, for 
similies are in truth the bladders upon 
which they float, and the grammarian 
sinks at once if he attempts to swim 
without them." 

" In the eyes of cats," says M. 
Buffon, " the contraction and dilata- 
tion of the pupil is so considerable, 
that the pupil which by daylight ap- 
pears narrow and small, like the black 
of one's nail, by night expands over 
the whole surface of the eye-ball." 

In this example the writer presumes 
that his reader's hands are as dirty as 
his own. 
Since, prep. p. 156 ; conj. p. 177. 
Solecism, a breach of the rules of syntax, 
as, " between you and I they was to 
blame." 

A solecism is considered by gram- 
marians as a much greater offence 
than either the barbarism or the im- 
propriety, because it betrays a greater 
ignorance of the principles of language. 



INDEX. 



235 



Soliliouy, a discourse to one's self. 

Sonnet, a short poem consisting of 
fourteen lines. 

Sophism, a fallacious argument. 

Sorites, an argument, or imperfect 
syllogism, consisting of accumulated 
propositions, in which the predicate of 
the former is still made the subject of 
the latter, till, in conclusion, the last 
predicate is attributed to the first 
subject, as — a horse is an animal, an 
animal is a body, a body is a sub- 
stance ; therefore a horse is a sub- 
stance. 

Speech, parts of, p. 12. 

Spelling, the act of expressing words 
by their proper letters, p. 8. 

Splutter, to speak hastily. 

Spondee, a foot of two long syllables. 

Stammer, to speak imperfectly with 
hesitation. To stutter. 

The following remarks on stutter- 
ing are taken from Dr. Arnotfs 
Natural Philosophy. They are too 
valuable and too closely connected 
with the subject of language to require 
any apology to the reader for their 
insertion here. 

" The most common case of stut- 
tering is not, as has been almost uni- 
versally believed, where the individual 
has a difficulty in respect to some par- 
ticular letter or articulation, by the 
disobedience to the will or power of 
association of parts of the mouth 
which should form it, but where the 
spasmodic interruption occurs alto- 
gether behind or beyond the mouth, 
viz. in the glottis, so as to affect all 
the articulations equally. To a per- 
son ignorant of anatomy, and there- 
fore knowing not what or where the 
glottis is, it may be sufficient explana- 
tion to say, that it is the slit or nar- 
row opening at the top of the wind- 
pipe, by which the air passes to and 
fro from the lungs — being situated 
just behind the root of the tongue. 
It is that which is felt to close sud- 
denly in hiccough, arresting the ingress 
of air, and that which closes to pre- 
vent the egress of air from the chest 
of a person lifting a heavy weight, or 
in making any straining exertion ; it 
is that also, by the repeated shutting 
of which, a person divides the sound 
in pronouncing several times, in dis- 
tinct and rapid succession, any vowel, 
as o, o, o, o. Now the glottis during 
common speech need never be closed, 
and a stutterer is cured if, by having 
his attention properly directed to it, 
he can keep it open. Had the edges 
or thin lips of the glottis been visible, 



like the external lips of the mouth, 
the nature of stuttering would not so 
long have remained a mystery, and 
the effort necessary to the cure would 
have forced itself upon the attention 
of the most careless observer; but 
because hidden, and professional men 
had not detected in how far they were 
concerned, and the patient himself 
had only a vague feeling of some diffi- 
culty, which, after straining, grimace, 
gesticulation, and sometimes almost 
general convulsion of the body, gave 
way, and the uncertainty with respect 
to the object has remained. Even 
many, who by attention and much 
labour had overcome the defect in 
themselves, as Demosthenes did, have 
not been able to describe to others the 
nature of their efforts so as to ensure 
imitation; and the author doubts much 
whether the quacks who have suc- 
ceeded in relieving many cases, but in 
many also have failed, or have given 
only temporary relief, really under- 
stood what precise ends in the action 
of the organs their imperfect direc- 
tions were accomplishing. 

" Now a stutterer, understanding of 
anatomy only what is stated above, 
will comprehend what he is to aim at, 
by being further told, that when any 
sound is continuing, as when be is 
humming a single note or tune, the 
glottis is necessarily open, and, there- 
fore, that when he chooses to begin 
pi'onouucing, or droning any simple 
sound, as the E of the English word 
berry (to do which at once no stut- 
terer has any difficulty), he thereby 
opens the glottis, and renders the pro- 
nunciation of any other sound easy. 
If then, in speaking or reading, he 
joins his words together, as if each 
phrase formed but one long word, or 
nearly as a person joins them in sing- 
ing (and this may be done without 
being at all noted as a peculiarity of 
speech, for all persons do it more or 
less in their ordinary conversation), 
the voice never stops, the glottis never 
closes, and thei'e is of course no stut- 
ter. The author has given this 
explanation, or lesson, wdth an ex- 
ample to a person, who before would 
have required half an hour to read a 
page, but who immediately afterwards 
read it almost as smoothly as was pos- 
sible for any one to do ; and who then, 
on transferring the lesson and the 
speech by continued practice and at- 
tention, obtained the same facility with 
respect to it. There are many per- 
sons not accounted peculiar in their 



236 



INDEX. 



speech, who, in seeking words to express 
themselves, often rest long between 
them on the simple sound of E men- 
tioned above, saying, for instance, hesi- 
tatingly — " e.I.e thinke . . . you 

may " — the sound never ceasing until 
the end of the phrase, however long 
the person may require to pronounce 
it. Now a stutterer, who, to open 
his glottis at the beginning of a phrase, 
or to open it in the middle of any in- 
terruption, uses such a sound, would 
not even at first be more remarkable 
than a drawling speaker, and he would 
only require to drawl for a little while 
until practice facilitated his command 
of the other sounds. Although pro- 
ducing the simple sound which we 
call the E of berry, or of the French 
v/ords de or que, is a means of opening 
the glottis, which by stutterers is 
found very generally to answer, there 
are many cases in which other means 
are more suitable, as the intelligent 
preceptor soon discovers. Were it 
possible to divide the nerves of the 
muscles of the glottis, without at the 
same time destroying the faculty of 
producing voice, such an operation 
would be a most immediate and cer- 
tain cure of stuttering : and the loss 
of the faculty of closing the glottis 
would be of no moment. 

" The view given also of the nature 
of stuttering and its cure explains the 
following facts, which to many per- 
sons have hitherto appeared extra- 
ordinary. Stutterers often can sing 
well, and without the least interrup- 
tion, for the tune being continued, the 
glottis does not close. Many stut- 
terers also can read poetry well, or 
any declamatory composition in which 
the uninterrupted tone is almost as 
remarkable as in singing. The cause 
of stuttering being so simple as above 
described, one rule given and explained 
may in certain cases cure the defect, 
however aggravated, as has been ob- 
served in not a few instances ; and 
this explains also why an ignorant 
pretender may occasionally succeed in 
curing by giving a rule of which he 
knows not the reason, and which he 
cannot modify to the peculiarities of 
other cases. The same view of the 
subject explains why the speech of a 
stutterer has been correctly compared 
to the escape of a liquid from a bottle 
with a long narrow neck, coming 
either as a hurried gush or not at all, 
for when the glottis is once opened, 
and the stutterer feels that he has the 
power of utterance, he is glad to hurry 



out as many words as he can before 
the interruption again occurs." 

Stanza, a subdivision of a poem. 

Stenography, the art of writing in 
short-hand. 

Stereotype, a type metal plate to print 
from at the letter press. 

Sterling, derivation of, p. 202. 

Stern, derivation of, p. 199. 

Strophe, a stanza. 

Style is the peculiar manner in which 
a writer expresses his thoughts, and 
is said to have always some reference 
to an author's disposition and man- 
ner of thinking. 

Subject, the noun to which the attri- 
bute expressed by the verb is said to 
belong. 

Subjunctive mood, p. 130 ; remarks 
on, p. 113. 

Substantive, p. 40. 

Suffix, a letter or syllable added to the 
end of a word. 

Superlative, the highest degree of 
quality, p. 69. 

Supine, a verbal Latin noun. 

Syllable, so much of a word as is 
uttered by one impulse of the voice. 

Syllogism, a sentence or argument 
made up of three propositions so dis- 
posed as that the last is necessarily 
inferred from those which go before. 
The use of the syllogism has been 
thus whimsically exemplified — 

Nothing hath no property, 

But it is the property of nothing to 

have no property, 
Therefore nothing hath a property. 

Synalepha, the contraction of two vow- 
els into one in a Latin verse 

Synaresis, the shortening of a word by 
the omission of a letter, as o'er for 
over. 

Synchysis, a confusion of words in a 
sentence. 

Syncope, a figure in grammar, whereby 
one or more letters are taken out of 
a word. 

Synecdoche, a trope, whereby a part 
is put for the whole, or the whole is 
put for a part. 

Synonymes, words of the same signifi- 
cation. Synonymous words are those 
which, strictly speaking, have pre- 
cisely the same meaning; there are 
very few such terms in any language. 
Words are called synonymous when 
they agree in expressing one jirineipal 
idea; but for the most part, if not 
always, they express it with some di- 
versity of circumstances ; they are 
varied by some accessory idea which 
every word introduces, and which 



INDEX. 



237 



forms the distinction between them ; 
they are like different shades of the 
same colour, and an accurate writer 
can employ them to great advantage. 
Ex. Species and sort have no 
other difference than that of a Latin 
and English idiom. 

Ex. A right line and a straight line 

are in geometry synonymous terms. 

Synopsis, an outline or general view. 

Syntax, that part of grammar which 

teaches the construction of words in 

a sentence. 

Syntax of articles, p. 31 ; nouns, p. 
55; adjectives, p. 72; pronouns, p. 
86; verbs, p. 135; adverbs, p 148; 
prepositions, p. 16*2; conjunctions, p. 
186. 
Synthesis, a joining together. 



T is a mute consonant, it has sometimes 
the sound of sh, as petition. 

Tache, a catch, a loop, a button. Dr. 
Campbell calls the conjunctions 
" taches " by which the more signifi- 
cant words of a sentence are held 
together. 

'• The greater part of grammarians" 
Mr. Tooke observes, " content them- 
selves by repeating that conjunctions 
are not themselves any parts of lan- 
guage, but only such accessaries as salt 
is to meat, or water to bread; or that 
they are the mere edging or sauce of 
language, or that they are like the 
handles to cups, or plumes to helmets, 
or binding to books, or harness for 
horses, or that they are pegs, and 
nails, and nerves, and joints, and liga- 
ments, and glue, and pitch, and lime, 
and mortar, and so forth. In which 
kind of pretty similies philosophers 
and grammarians seem to have vied 
with one another, and have often en- 
deavoured to amuse their readers and 
cover their own ignorance by very 
learnedly disputing the propriety of 
the simile, instead of explaining the 
nature of the conjunction." 

Tachygraphy, the art of quick writing. 

Tautology is the needless repetition of 
the same word, or of the same idea in 
different words, as " This change of 
pronunciation is very common and 
frequent in our language." 

"It is not the repeating of the 
same sound that offends so much as 
the repetition of the same idea. If 
the same word displeases when used a 
second time, it is not because it hath 
already struck the ear, but because it 



hath before affected the mind, which 
grows weary and is disgusted, without 
the graces of novelty. Hence came 
the establishment of certain words 
we call pronouns, the repetition of 
which custom hath made familiar, 
having given them no other office 
than simply to recal the matter in 
question, without any redundancy of 
words. For the same reason what 
we call articles and prepositions are 
equally repeated without disgust, 
nothing being expected from them 
but a bare nomination or indication ; 
for having nothing to determine of 
themselves, they always appear new 
when the subject they indicate is new. 
This is an undeniable proof that the 
beauty of words is more owing to 
their variety of meanings than to 
their different articulations, and that 
it is a multiplicity of ideas that pro- 
duces in effect a multiplicity of terms." 

Tautophony, a successive repetition of 
the same sound as, mama, murmur. 

Technical, belonging to arts not in 
common or popular use. 

Tense, a variation of the verb to sig- 
nify time, pp. 115, 131. 

Term, the word by which a thing is 
expressed. 

Termination, end of words as varied 
by their signification. 

Terminology, a definition of the terms 
used in any of the sciences. 

Terse, smooth, cleanly written, neat. 

Teutonic, belonging to the Teutones 
or ancient Germans. 

Text, that on which a comment is writ- 
ten ; a sentence of scripture. 

Than, conj. p. ] 70. 

That, p. 181. 

" The word that, by being some- 
times a demonstrative pronoun, some- 
times a relative, and sometimes a 
conjunction, may produce a quadruple 
repetition of the same word, which, 
though not elegant, is strictly gram- 
matical ; a repetition which is, per- 
haps, peculiar to the English tongue." 
" When this word is used as a pro- 
noun demonstrative it has always an 
accent on it, and is heard distinctly 
rhyming with hat.'" — Walker. 

The, the definite article used before a 
general term to restrict its significa- 
tion, p. 24. 

There is something particularly ab- 
surd in Mr. Tooke's illustration 
of the etymology of this word — 

" The (our article as it is called) is 
the imperative of the verb thean, 
which may very well supply the place 
of the correspondent article se, which 



238 



INDEX. 



is the imperative of seon (videre), 
for it answers the same purpose in 
discourse, to say see man or take man. 
For example — 

The man that hath not music in himself 
Is fit for treasons, &c. 

That man is fit for treasons. 
Take man (see man). Taken man 
hath not music, &c. 

Said man or taken man is fit for 
treason. 

Theme, a subject on which one speaks 
or writes ; the original word whence 
others are derived. 

A theme is only the miniature of a 
declamation, essay, .oration, or ser- 
mon. 

Theoretical, speculative, depending 
on theory or speculation. 

Theory, speculation, not practice ; 
scheme, plan, or system ; yet subsist- 
ing only in the mind. 

Therefore, conj. p. 176. 

Thesis, a position, something laid down 
affirmatively or negatively. 

Though, conj. p. 177. 

To, prep. p. 155. 

Tooke, Mr. on the necessity of the ar- 
ticle, p. 15 ; on the composition of 
ideas, p. 16. 

The following event in the early 
life of Mr. Tooke is characteristic, 
and evinces the same spirit which 
prevails in his work on language. 

Home Tooke, when at Eton, was 
one day asked by the master why a 
certain verb governed a particular 
case ? He answered, " I don't know. " 
" That is impossible," said the master, 
" I know you are not ignorant, but 
obstinate." Home, however, per- 
sisted, and the master flogged. After 
the punishment, the master quoted 
the rule of grammar which bore on 
the subject, and Home instantly 
replied, " I know that very well, but 
you did not ask me for the rule, you 
demanded the reason." 

Tone is the inflexion of voice in utter- 
ing words or sentences. The mean- 
ing of the speaker is often known by 
the tone in which a sentence is ex- 



" A word that's but unkindly spoken " 

may wound the feelings of a person, 
while the same word spoken with a 
different modulation might have 
conciliated his enmity or secured his 
friendship. 

" To some nations it has appeared 
easier to express different ideas by 
varying the tone with which they 



pronounce the same word, than to 
contrive words for all their ideas. 
This is the practice of the Chinese in 
particular ; the number of words in 
their language is said not to be great, 
but in speaking they vary each of 
their words no less than five different 
times, by which they make the same 
word signify five different things. 
This must give a great appearance of 
music or singing to their speech. For 
those inflexions of voice, which in the 
infancy of language were no more 
than harsh and dissonant cries, must, 
as language gradually polishes, pass 
iuto more smooth and musical sounds, 
and hence is formed what we call the 
Prosody of a language." — Blair. 

Tragedy, a dramatic representation of 
a serious action. 

Tralation, the using of a word meta- 
phorically, in a less proper but more 
significant sense. 

Transitive. 

In grammar a verb is called tran- 
sitive when the action implies an 
object acted upon by the agent, or 
when the action necessarily requires 
one or more objects for its develop- 
ment, as " Richard gave the book to 
Charles." " Charles opened the 
book." 

Transposition. When the order of 
the words or clauses of a sentence 
differs from the usual collocation, the 
words or clauses are said to be trans- 
posed, as, 

" This to me, 
In dreadful secrecy, impart they did." 

Travesty, to turn into burlesque. 

Tribrach, a poetical foot consisting of 
three short syllables. 

Triphthong, a coalition of three vowels 
to form one sound, as, eau in beauty, 
iew in view. 

Triptote, a noun used but in three 
cases. 

Trisyllable, a word of three syllables, 
as, con-tent-ment. 

Trite, worn out, stale, common, not 
new. 

Trochee, a poetical foot, consisting of a 
long and a short syllable. In Eng- 
lish the first syllable of a Trochee is 
accented, the last unaccented. Tro- 
chaic verse is of several kinds the 
longest Trochaic verse that our lan- 
guage admits consists of six trochees. 

" On a mountain stretch'd beneath a 
hoary willow." 

Trope, a figure in speech ; the changing 
of a word from its original signifi- 
cation. 



INDEX. 



239 



" Writers on rhetoric," says Dr. 
Ash, " have generally made a dis- 
tinction between tropes and figures. 
Quintilian, indeed, acknowledges that 
some authors have confounded them ; 
yea, that some have gone so far as to 
call all tropes figures, but he is still for 
keeping up the distinction, and says 
' They resemble one another so 
nearly that the difference is not in- 
stantly perceivable, there is therefore 
the more reason why we should care- 
fully distinguish them.' 

" ' A trope is a transition from the 
natural and original signification of a 
word to that which is foreign and un- 
common.' 

" * A figure is a certain form of style 
different from the common and ob- 
vious way of speaking.' 

" We will not say this is a distinc- 
tion without a difference, but we may 
venture to say the definition of the 
figure is equally applicable to the 
trope. Quintilian shall be judge 
himself. ' There is a particular me- 
thod of forming tropes, and they alter 
the plain course of style, both which 
are the properties of figures.' The 
truth is, a trope is a species of figure, 
for though every figure be not a trope, 
yet every trope is a figure." 

Truism, an identical proposition. 

Truth, the contrary to falsehood, 
p. 200. 

Tyro, one yet not master of his art ; 
one in his rudiments. 



U. 

U. This vowel is said to have three 
sounds, as heard in — tube, tub, full. 

Un, a Saxon negative particle, placed 
commonly before adjectives and ad- 
verbs ; it is often conveniently em- 
ployed with another negative to render 
an assertion less positive, as " He is 
not unmindful of the favours you con- 
fer." 

Unaccented, not accented. 

Undeclined, words not varied by ter- 
mination. 

Ungrammatical, not according to the 
rules of grammar. 

Uniliteral, consisting of one letter 
only, as the pronoun I, and the inter- 
jection O. 

Unintelligible, not to be understood. 
Ex. " Every name that is put for 
a quality degenerates into a quality 
which we may call a respective qua- 
lity." 

Ex. " Thus much," says Dr. 
Campbell in his Rhetoric, " shall suf- 



fice for explaining the spirit, the 
intent, and the distinguishing qualities 
of each sort of address, all which agree 
in this, an accommodation to affairs of 
a serious and important nature." 

It would not be a difficult task to 
compile from works on languages 
alone a volume of remarks and in- 
structions as totally unintelligible to 
ordinary minds as the instances here 
given. 

Univocal, having one meaning. 

Unless, conj. p. 169. 

Usage. Those words which are most 
generally received among the learned 
and polite, as well as the bulk of 
speakers, are the most legitimate ; we 
may therefore conclude that a majo- 
rity of the three classes (the learned, 
the polite, and the common speakers), 
ought always to concur in order to 
constitute what is called good usage. 

Use is that which is said to give law to 
language. 

" The source of that preference 
which distinguisheth good use from 
bad in language is a natural propen- 
sion of the human mind to believe 
that those are the best judges of the 
proper signs, and of the proper appli- 
cation of them, who understand best 
the things which they represent." 

The sentence here quoted may 
furnish a point for discussion whether 
the author has not opposed " reputa- 
ble use " by employing the term pro- 
pension instead of propensity. 

" In what concerns words them- 
selves, their construction and applica- 
cation, it is of importance to have 
some certain, steady, and well known 
standard to recur to, a standard which 
every one hath access to canvass and 
examine. And this can be no other 
than authors of reputation. Accord- 
ingly, we find that these are by uni- 
versal consent in actual possession of 
this authority as to this tribunal when 
any doubt arises the appeal is always 
made." 

Utterance. The French have charac- 
teristically distinguished this property 
of pronunciation by saying that the 
English for the most part bite their 
words, that is, they do not give them 
a full utterance. 

A word is properly pronounced 
when the accent is placed on the right 
syllable, and the letters are distinctly 
uttered with a proper tone. 

V. 

V is a consonant classed among the 



240 



INDEX. 



serai-vowels. It has one uniform 
sound, that of flat/, as vat, have, move. 

Vade-mecum, a book that is carried by 
a person as a manuel for memoran- 
dums, or for constant reference. 

Vague, unsettled, indefinite. 

Verb, that part of speech which affirms, 
p. 101. 

The verb implies being or doing in 
that person or thing to which it is 
joined by the affirmation ; it also ex- 
presses the attribute that is said to 
belong to the nominative. 

The irregular verbs offer an easy 
means of improvement in the English 
language, since many of this class are 
not so far corrupted by usage as to 
render unattainable the re-establish- 
ment of the regular form of the past 
tense and past participle ; thus the 
words lighted, choosed, catched, and 
many others, require only the sanction 
of good writers to obtain for them the 
preference. 

Verbal Nouns, nouns derived from 
verbs. 

Verbatim, word for word. 

Verbiage, empty writing or discourse. 

Verbose, exuberant in words. 

Vernacular, peculiar to the country 
one lives in or was born in, native. 

Vernacularly, agreeable to the native 
idiom or manner. 

Verse, metrical language. 

Versefier, a maker of verses. A 
versefier and a poet are two different 
things ; the first is contemptible, the 
latter honorable, in the opinion of all 
men of sense and learning in all ages 
and nations. 

Versification, the art of making verses. 

Videlicet, written viz., but not to be 
read according to the abbreviation. 
It is usually rendered into English by 
its equivalent term " namely," or 
" that is." 

Vocabulary, a collection of words. 

Vocal, belonging to the voice. 

Vocative case, a noun representing a 
person spoken to or addressed, p. 54. 

Vowels, those letters of the alphabet 
that have or represent a perfect sound, 
as a e i o u, and in some cases w and y. 
In the words, abstemiously and 
facetiously, the vowels appear in their 
alphabetical order, and are propounded 
in their usual manner. 

Vulgarism, an expression or form of 
speech cm-rent among the illiterate. 

" The genuine source of the vul- 
garism seems to be the affectation of 
an easy, familiar, and careless manner; 
it is conquered by discipline and the 
study of good authors. ' An itch for 



novelty? continues this writer, is sure 
to corrupt the style of young persons." 
The vulgarism here employed by 
Dr. Campbell is rendered more glaring 
and reprehensible because he is at the 
time admonishing others to avoid the 
fault which he himself commits. 



W. 

W i3 reckoned a consonant at the ber 
ginning of words or syllables, but in 
every other case it is considered a 
vowel. Mr. Knowles agrees with 
Webster and Sheridan, that W always 
marks a vowel sound. Its name, like 
those of other consonants, has little or 
no connection with its sound. 

" This distinction between the 
nature and name of a consonant," says 
Mr. Murray, " is of great importance, 
and should be well explained to the 
pupil. They are frequently con- 
founded by writers on grammar. 
Observations and reasonings on the 
name are often applied to explain 
the nature of a consonant, and by 
this means the student is led into 
error and perplexity respecting these 
elements of language. It should be 
impressed on his mind that the name 
of every consonant is a complex sound, 
but that the consonant itself is always 
a simple sound." 

Wage, the singular of wages. Pay 
given for service. Gage, pledge. 

Wages of sin, p. 137. 

Was, the past tense of the irr. verb to 
be, p. 112. 

What, a relative pronoun. 

Which, a pronoun relative, p. 84. 

Who, a pronoun relative applied to per- 
sons, p. 84. 

With, prep. p. 153. 

Without, prep. p. 153. 

Words, the arbitrary signs of ideas, 
p. 203. 

The number of words in the Eng- 
lish, or indeed in any modern lan- 
guage, cannot be accurately ascer- 
tained. 

It is stated that the French Revo- 
lution added nearly five thousand 
words to the French language. 

X. 

X, though found in Saxon words, begins 
no word in the English language. 
This letter is always sounded like z 
in words from the Greek begin- 
ning with x, as Xenophon, xerotes, 
xyster, pronounced zenophon, serotes, 
zister. 



INDEX. 



241 



Y. 



Y is a consonant when it begins a word 
or syllable; in other situations it is 
considered a vowel. This letter in 
old English is sometimes prefixed as 
an increasing syllable to the past tense 
and past participle of a verb, as yclad, 
clothed or clad. 

Ye, the formal nominative plural oUhou. 

You, personal pronoun, p. 80. 

Yourself, pronoun, p. 82. 

Z. 

Z has uniformly the sound of hard s. It 



is said that no word of English original 
begins with this letter. 

Zeugma, in grammar, when a word 
agreeing with divers nouns, or an ad- 
jective with divers substantives, is 
referred to one expressly and to the 
others by supplement, as " Lust over- 
came shame ; boldness, fear ; and 
madness, reason." 

Zoilus, a backbiting poet who wrote 
against Homer's works ; hence all en- 
vious persons, or such as maliciously 
carp at other men's works, are called 
Zoilists. 



Printed by J. Urrwin, St. Peter'* Alle), Cornliiil, London. 



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